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Lingua Inglese 2 (CInt) A.A. 2007/08 Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti Lingua Inglese 2 Lecture 4 DOTT.SSA MARIA IVANA LORENZETTI 1 Relations of Opposition and Exclusion They can be further subdivided in: Relations of incompatibility and co-meronymy Opposites 2 Lecture 4 - 04/03/2008 1 Lingua Inglese 2 (CInt) A.A. 2007/08 Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti Incompatibility This relation concerns mutual exclusion of classes: if something is a cat, then it follows that it cannot be a dog. Incompatibles are terms which denote classes which share no members Co-hyponyms are not necessarily incompatible in the above sense: queen and mother are both hyponyms of woman, but there is nothing which prevents someone who is a queen from being also a mother Similarly, it might seem that novel and paperback can be considered as compatible co-hyponyms of book. But in fact they are in a relation of incompatibility, since they are hyponyms of different senses of book. Superordinate: Book → TOME Superordinate: Book → TEXT Hyponyms: paperback, hardback Hyponyms: novel, biography, textbook 3 Incompatibility (2) A relation of exclusion parallel to that between cohyponyms is the one which holds between comeronyms If X and Z are parts of the same individual Y, then A is a part of X unilaterally entails A is not a part of Z, that is sister parts do not overlap. Nose, cheek, chin of face, or wheel, engine and chassis of a car do not overlap. The exclusion in these cases is at least prototypically spatial: the sister parts of an individual do not have any material substance in common 4 Lecture 4 - 04/03/2008 2 Lingua Inglese 2 (CInt) A.A. 2007/08 Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti Opposites Opposites are incompatible terms of a special type, i.e. they are contrasting terms, which differ along a specific dimensions. They are usually mentioned in pairs. Some properties of opposites are: Binarity: opposites are incompatibles by definition, but there can only be two members of a set of opposites. Inherentness: it concerns a type of binarity which is pragmatic or accidental, as opposed to something that is logical. 2 main sources of heat for cooking, i.e. gas and electricity, but they do not represent opposite terms, because their binarity is the result of contextual factors (other sources might be discovered in the future). Movement along a vertical axis: the possibilities of movement in this case are logically limited to two: the binarity of the pair updown is thus ineluctable, and the adjectives form a satisfactory pair of opposites 5 Typologies of Opposites Opposites fall into a number of relatively clearly-defined types, the most important of which are: Complementaries Antonyms Directional Opposites Converses 6 Lecture 4 - 04/03/2008 3 Lingua Inglese 2 (CInt) A.A. 2007/08 Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti Complementaries They constitute a very basic form of oppositeness and show inherent binarity in its purest form. Negating either terms in a complementary relation logically implies the other term. So, if something falls within a class, it cannot fall in the other. Complementaries can be characterised by the following logical relation F(X) entails and is entailed by not-F(Y) The door is open → The door is not closed Mary passed the exam → Mary did not fail the exam The answer is not true → The answer is false 7 Complementaries (2) They do not allow any intermediate term in between and exhaustively divide a domain into two mutually exclusive compartments. Cfr. *He is neither dead nor alive. / * The answer is true, but also false. They are not gradable. *He is more alive than you. *He is moderately alive/very dead Some statements with complementaries can be used with degree modification, but only in a figurative sense. What you say is very true → I agree with what you say He’s more dead than alive → He’s (probably) very ill. 8 Lecture 4 - 04/03/2008 4 Lingua Inglese 2 (CInt) A.A. 2007/08 Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti Some Examples of Complementaries True-False Open-Shut Dead-Alive Stationary-Moving Male-Female 9 Antonyms Antonyms (this term is also sometimes used for the entire category of opposites) are gradable adjectives i.e. they can be modified without oddness by intensifiers such as very, rather, extremely, and so on. Very good quite easy rather cold extremely fast 10 Lecture 4 - 04/03/2008 5 Lingua Inglese 2 (CInt) A.A. 2007/08 Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti Antonyms (2) Unlike complementaries, they do not exhaustively divide a domain in two. There is a neutral area between them, which can be described as neither belonging to any of them LENGTH long short neither long nor short 11 Antonyms (3) Members of a pair denote degrees of some variable property, such as length speed, weight, accuracy Antonyms normally have a marked and an unmarked member. The marked member is used as a reference point in questions How long is the ladder? → no presupposition as to length of the ladder How short is the ladder? → it presupposes that the ladder is short How good was the film? → neutral How bad was the film? → I think the film was bad 12 Lecture 4 - 04/03/2008 6 Lingua Inglese 2 (CInt) A.A. 2007/08 Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti Antonyms Antonyms fall into several relatively welldefined groups: Polar Antonyms → long-short Overlapping Antonyms → good-bad Equipollent Antonyms → hot-cold 13 Polar Antonyms They can occur in the comparative and superlative degrees: long-longer-longest; light-lighter, lightest, but need to be interpreted in relation to some reference value They can indicate degrees of objective, usually measurable properties. They are fully gradable and occur with a variety of degree modifiers, very, slightly, rather, quite, a bit, too, long They are incompatibles, but not complementaries. It’s neither long nor short is not a contradiction Comparative forms stand in a converse relationship. If X and Y are two polar antonyms, and A and B two nouns to which these adjectives can be applied, saying A is X-er than B entails B is Yer than A. A is heavier than B → B is lighter than A Mary is younger than Tom → Tom is older than Mary 14 Lecture 4 - 04/03/2008 7 Lingua Inglese 2 (CInt) A.A. 2007/08 Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti Examples of Polar Antonyms Long-short; Young/old Fast-slow; Wide-narrow; Heavy-light; Strong-weak; Large-small; Thick-thin; High-low; Deep-shallow Difficult-easy 15 Equipollent Antonyms The two other types of antonyms can be characterized by the impartiality of their comparatives. In the case of equipollent antonyms, neither term is impartial. Both are committed. Therefore hotter presupposes hot ?X is hot, but it’s colder than Y ?X is cold, but it’s hotter than Y Equipollent antonyms typically denote sensations or emotions, or evaluations based on subjective reactions rather than on objective standards happy-sad; proud of-ashamed of; hot-cold; bitter-sweet; painful-pleasurable nice-nasty pleasant-unpleasant 16 Lecture 4 - 04/03/2008 8 Lingua Inglese 2 (CInt) A.A. 2007/08 Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti Overlapping Antonyms The members of this class have an evaluative character, one member being positive, the other derogatory. Both terms are used in normal how-questions, but one term yields an impartial question, while the other yields a committed question. (How good is it?/how bad is it?) good-bad; kind-cruel; clever-dull; pretty-plain; polite-rude dirty-clean honest/dishonest dangerous/safe 17 Directional Opposites They are of two main types: Static direction, which include straightforward directions and extremes along an axis up-down; backwards-forwards; north-south; into-out; east-west top-bottom 18 Lecture 4 - 04/03/2008 9 Lingua Inglese 2 (CInt) A.A. 2007/08 Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti Directional Opposites (2) Dynamic directional opposites, usually called reversives, are represented by verbs denoting change or motion in opposite directions rise-fall; advance-retreat; increase-decrease; lengthen-shorten; dress-undress; tie-untie; mount-dismount; enter-leave; damage-repair Appear-disappear 19 Converses They are usually defined as a sub-type of directional opposites. They can also be called relational opposites Some of them have a salient directional character, such as precede/follow; lend/borrow (the thing lent/borrowed moves from/towards the person denoted by the subject), bequeath/inherit; buy/sell (double movements of money and of goods) Others have a less clear direction with movements Above-below; In front of-behind The tree is in front of the house The house is behind the tree Before-after Buy-sell; John sold the car to Bill for £.5000 Bill bought the car from John for £.5000 20 Lecture 4 - 04/03/2008 10 Lingua Inglese 2 (CInt) A.A. 2007/08 Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti Converses (2) Parent-offspring Husband-wife John is Sarah’s husband. Sarah is John’s wife. Lend-borrow Jim borrowed a bike from Tom Tom lend a bike to Jim Both terms can be used to describe the same state of affairs, A is above B means the same as B is below A, except with respect to which element serves as a reference point. Similarly A is B’s parent means the same as B is A’s offspring 21 Syntagmatic Relations These kinds of relations are better understood in terms of constraints, and hold among items which occur in the same sentence with specific syntactic relations A word cannot combine freely with just any other word in the language There are constraints on the combinability of words: Syntactic constraints Collocational constraints 22 Lecture 4 - 04/03/2008 11 Lingua Inglese 2 (CInt) A.A. 2007/08 Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti Syntagmatic Relations - Syntactic The word class label of a word, which is also shown in its dictionary entry (noun, verb, adj, adv, prep etc) is a designation of the syntactic operations that a word can engage in Combination of nouns and determiners – mass nouns vs. countable nouns Some sugar will do *a sugar * many sugar Sugar is a basic ingredient 23 Syntagmatic Relations – Syntactic 2 Nouns that are compatible with particular post-modifiers His determination to succeed His affection for Lucy/ *to Lucy Her regret that he had failed Position of adjectives – attribute vs. predicate A mere boy vs. *that boy is mere The boy is asleep vs. *an asleep boy 24 Lecture 4 - 04/03/2008 12 Lingua Inglese 2 (CInt) A.A. 2007/08 Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti Syntagmatic Relations – Syntactic 3 Verbs and type of structure in which they can occur (the kind of object, complements and obligatory adjuncts) Do you remember Jim? He remembered that he had phoned He remembered to phone her Do you remember who came? I remember him bald 25 Syntagmatic Relations - Collocational We refer to the term collocations to talk about two types of combinability The regular expectations that a word has for some other words Describe a circle Construct a triangle Draw a perpendicular Powerful motorcar Strong coffee Raise cattle Bring up children Good/strong likelihood; strong/high probability 26 Lecture 4 - 04/03/2008 13 Lingua Inglese 2 (CInt) A.A. 2007/08 Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti Syntagmatic Relations – Collocational (2) The other sense of collocation refers to semantic compatibilities between words engaged in a particular syntactic function It may be illustrated by Chomsky’s famous sentence Colourless green ideas sleep furiously The various semantic incompatibilities arise from extra-linguistic reality, but they show facts about the operation of words in the language system 27 Syntagmatic Relations – Collocational (3) John R. Firth: “the company that words keep” Collocation is a feature of all languages. At its simplest, it is “what goes together with what”. It is used in lexicology to refer to the habitual co-occurrence of individual lexical items. Weak collocations: good +….. Strong Collocations: green jealousy; blue flu 28 Lecture 4 - 04/03/2008 14 Lingua Inglese 2 (CInt) A.A. 2007/08 Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti Syntagmatic Relations – Collocational (4) A collocation can be made up of two or more words: Verb + Noun Adjective + Noun Totally misunderstand Adverb + Adjective Strong tea; powerful engine (*powerful tea; *strong engine) Heavy traffic; heavy drinker Adverb + Verb make a mistake; take a shower Extremely grateful/generous; completely wrong Adjective + Preposition Guilty of …-ing; crazy for; fond of; interested in 29 Collocations Typical criteria for collocations: non-compositionality non-substitutability non-modifiability. Collocations usually cannot be translated into other languages word by word. 30 Lecture 4 - 04/03/2008 15 Lingua Inglese 2 (CInt) A.A. 2007/08 Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti Non-compositionality in Collocations A phrase is compositional if the meaning can predicted from the meaning of the parts. new companies A phrase is non-compositional if the meaning cannot be predicted from the meaning of the parts hot dog Collocations are not necessarily fully compositional in that there is usually an element of meaning added to the combination. Eg. strong tea. Idioms are the most extreme examples of non-compositionality. Eg. to hear it through the grapevine. 31 Non-Substitutability in Collocations We cannot substitute near-synonyms for the components of a collocation. For example We can’t say yellow wine instead of white wine even though yellow is as good a description of the color of white wine as white is (it is kind of a yellowish white). Many collocations cannot be freely modified with additional lexical material or through grammatical transformations (Non-modifiability). E.g. white wine, but not whiter wine mother in law, but not mother in laws 32 Lecture 4 - 04/03/2008 16 Lingua Inglese 2 (CInt) A.A. 2007/08 Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti Syntagmatic Relations – Collocational (5) Collocations can undergo a fossilization process until they become fixed expressions (or idioms) BLUE Blue film: film a luci rosse Blue Funk: fifa nera Blue jeans: blue jeans Blue blood: sangue blu To feel blue: sentirsi giù Out of the blue: inaspettatamente 33 Collocations and Semantic Integrity The semantic integrity of a collocation is more marked, if the meaning of one of its constituent is restricted contextually Heavy Heavy Drinker Heavy Smoker That car is heavy on petrol Heavy weight Heavy Rain Consumption Sense Quantity Sense 34 Lecture 4 - 04/03/2008 17 Lingua Inglese 2 (CInt) A.A. 2007/08 Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti Syntagmatic Relations – Collocational (6) RED Red wine: vino rosso To see red: non vederci più dalla rabbia To catch sb red-handed: cogliere in flagrante To be in the red: essere al verde (o avere il conto in banca in rosso) Red-light district: quartiere a luci rosse 35 Derivational Relations These kind of relations are those found between words forming part of a set of paradigmatic choices They have a role in structuring the vocabulary of a language, since they manifest in the so-called word-families, or words derived from a single root. 1. Cook (v. tr) I am cooking supper 2. Cook (v. intr.) Can you cook? 3. Cook (v. intr.) The chicken is cooking. 4. Cook (n) Jane is a good cook. 5. Cooker (n) We’ve bought a new cooker. 6. Cooking (n) John is in love with Mary’s cooking. 7. Cookery (n) John is taking cookery lessons 36 Lecture 4 - 04/03/2008 18 Lingua Inglese 2 (CInt) A.A. 2007/08 Dott.ssa Maria Ivana Lorenzetti Derivational Relations (2) The semantic relations between these words are partly systematic and partly arbitrary. If we think of the relationship between cook in 3 and cooker, the suffix -er of cooker seems to have an instrumental meaning (a cooker is something used for cooking), but if we cook chicken over a fire, the fire does not become a cooker for that reason So there is some specialization in the derivation of the word cooker from cook, since a barbecue is not a cooker, nor is a microwave oven Considering the relation between cook in 1, 2, 3: in 3 the verb refers to the fact that the chicken is undergoing heating treatment, so as to be more tasty as a food. 2 is not just asking whether John can cause food to undergo heat treatment, but asks if he has certain abilities 37 Lecture 4 - 04/03/2008 19