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US Involvement in World War II The United States gradually abandoned neutrality as events in Europe and Asia pulled the nations toward war. World War II, a global military conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, which involved most of the world's nations, including all of the great powers: eventually forming two opposing military alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, with more than 100 million military personnel mobilized. In a state of "total war," the major participants placed their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities at the service of the war effort, erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources. Marked by significant events involving the mass death of civilians, including the Holocaust and the only use of nuclear weapons in warfare, it was the deadliest conflict in human history, resulting in 50 million to over 70 million fatalities. The War in Europe: In the 1920’s and 1930’s, Germany faced hard times because of the Treaty of Versailles (disgrace) WWI reparations, and a worldwide depression. Using desperation in Germany, Hitler rose to power. Other European powers used appeasement, giving concessions in order to avoid armed conflict, so that war would not break out with Germany. World War II began with Hitler’s invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, followed shortly after by the Soviet Union’s invasion of Poland from the east and Baltic countries. Appeasement failed. The Soviet Union, Italy, and Germany had totalitarian regimes (government based on rule by military forces). During the first two years of the war, the United States stayed officially neutral (remaining uncommitted during conflict) as Germany overran France, most of Europe, and pounded Britain from the air (Battle of Britain). In mid-1941, Hitler turned on his former partner and invaded the Soviet Union. Despite strong isolationist sentiment at home, the United States increasingly helped Britain. It gave Britain war supplies and old naval warships in return for military bases in Bermuda and the Caribbean (Lend-Lease Act). Franklin Roosevelt compared it to “lending a garden hose to a next-door neighbor whose house was on fire.” The War in Asia: During the 1930’s, a militaristic Japan invaded and brutalized Manchuria and China as it sought military and economic domination over Asia. The United States refused to recognize Japanese conquests in Asia and imposed an embargo (an order to stop trade with another country) on exports of oil and steel to Japan. Tensions rose, but both countries negotiated to avoid war. Japan was getting desperate for raw materials. While negotiating with the U.S. and without any warning, Japan carried out an air attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941. The attack destroyed much of the American Pacific fleet and killed several thousand Americans. Roosevelt called it “a date that will live in infamy” as he asked Congress to declare war on Japan. After Pearl Harbor, Hitler honored a pact with Japan and declared war on the United States. The debates over isolationism and the United States were over. The United States mobilized (prepared for war). World War II was not a true world war and the United States was fully involved. ‘CAUSE ‘MURCA! THAT’S WHY! Strategies of World War II Wartime strategies reflect the political and military goals of alliance, resources on hand, and the geographical extent to the conflict. Allied Strategy: America and its allies (Britain and the Soviet Union, after being invaded by Germany), followed a “Defeat Hitler First” strategy. Most American military resources were targeted for Europe. In the Pacific, American military strategy called for an “island hopping” campaign, seizing islands closer and closer to Japan and using them as bases for air attacks on Japan, and cutting off Japanese supplies through submarine warfare against Japanese shipping. Axis Strategy: Germany hoped to defeat the Soviet Union quickly, gain control of the Soviet oil fields, and force Britain out of the war through a bombing campaign and submarine warfare before America’s strength could turn the tide. Following Pearl Harbor, Japan invaded the Philippines and Indonesia and planned to invade both Australia and Hawaii. Its leaders hoped that America would then accept Japanese predominance in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, rather than conduct a bloody and costly war to reverse Japanese gains. Major Battles and Turning Points in North Africa: El Alamein (July 1-27, 1942): German forces threatening to seize Egypt and the Suez Canal were defeated by the British. This defeat prevented Hitler from gaining access to Middle Eastern oil supplies and potentially attacking the Soviet Union from the South. Major Battles and Turning Points in Europe: Stalingrad (July 17, 1942 to February 2, 1943): Hundreds of thousands of German soldiers were killed or captured in a months-long siege of the Russian city of Stalingrad. This defeat prevented Germany from seizing the Soviet oil fields and turned the tide against Germany in the east. Normandy landings (D-Day) (June 6, 1944): American and Allied troops under Eisenhower landed in German occupied France. Despite intense German opposition and heavy American casualties, the landings succeeded and the liberation of Western Europe from Hitler began. Battle of the Bulge (December 16, 1944 –January 25, 1945): This was a major German offensive launched at the Allies on the Western Front (France, Belgium, and Luxembourg) towards the end of World War II. The Germans were attempting to regain lost territory. This was one of the bloodiest battle in US history. The allied victory in this battle, along with depleted German resources, allowed the Allies to push the German armies back toward Germany. Most Nazi leaders recognized defeat after this battle. Major Battles and Turning Points in the Pacific: Battle of Midway (June 4 to 7, 1942): In the “Miracle of Midway,” American naval forces defeated a much larger Japanese force as it prepared to seize Midway Island. Coming only a few months after Pearl Harbor, a Japanese victory at Midway would have enabled Japan to invade Hawaii. The American victory ended the Japanese threat to Hawaii and began a series of American victories in the “island hopping” campaign that carried the war closer to Japan. The Battle of Guadalcanal (August 7, 1942 to February 9, 1943): The Guadalcanal Campaign, codenamed Operation Watchtower by Allied forces, was fought on and around the island of Guadalcanal in the Pacific theatre of World War II. It was part of the Allied strategic plan to protect the convoy routes between the US, Australia and New Zealand. It was the second major offensive by Allied forces against the Empire of Japan. Along with Midway, it marked a turning point in the Pacific theater and started the United States’ offensive in the Pacific, eventually leading to Japan’s defeat. Battles of Iwo Jima (February 19, 1945 to March 26, 1945) and Okinawa (April 1, 1945 to June 21, 1945): The American invasions of these two islands brought American forces closer than ever to Japan, but both invasions cost thousands of American lives and even more Japanese lives, as Japanese soldiers fought fiercely over every inch of the islands and Japanese soldiers and civilians committed suicide rather than surrender. The Use of the Atomic Bombs (Hiroshima: August 6, 1945 and Nagasaki: August 9, 1945): Facing the prospect of horrendous casualties among both Americans and Japanese if American forces had to invade Japan itself, President Harry Truman ordered the use of atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki to force the Japanese to surrender. Tens of thousands of people were killed in both cities shortly after the bombs were used, the Japanese leaders surrendered, avoiding the need for American forces to invade Japan. World War II on the Home Front Success in the war required the total commitment of the nation’s resources. On the home front, public education and the mass media promoted nationalism. Economic Resources: US government and industry forged a close working relationship to allocate resources effectively. Rationing was used to maintain a supply of essential products to the war effort. War bonds and income tax were used for financing the war. Business retooled from peacetime to wartime production (e.g., car manufacturing to tank manufacturing). Human Resources: Contributions to a war effort came from all segments of a society. Women entered into previously male jobs roles as African Americans and others struggled to obtain desegregation of the armed forces and end discriminatory hiring practices. More women and minorities entered the labor force as men entered the armed forces. Citizens volunteered in support of the war effort. Women During World War II: Women increasingly participated in the workforce to replace men serving in the military Rosie the Riveter served as a model for the working Women in World War II. Women typically participated in non-combat military roles. Military Resources: The Draft/Selective Service was used to provide personnel for the military. This was a fast, efficient way of getting people into the military. African Americans during World War II: African Americans migrated to cities in search of jobs in war plants. African Americans campaigned for victory in war and equality at home. Media/Communications during World War II: During World War II, the media and entertainment industries saw their role as supporting the war effort by promoting nationalism. Propaganda, which is the use of various forms of media as a tool of opinion setting, was used to spark nationalism. The US government maintained strict censorship of reporting the war. Public morale and ad campaigns kept Americans focused on the war effort. The entertainment industry produced movies, plays, and shows that boosted the morale and patriotic support for the war effort as well as portrayed the enemy in stereotypical ways. Stereotyping is describing or portraying all people of a particular race, culture, or attitude as being the same and having the same characteristics. Japanese Internment: Japanese Americans were placed in internment camps during World War II. There was a false belief that Japanese Americans were aiding the enemy. Internment is incarceration for safety and security purposes. Internment affected Japanese American populations along the West Coast. The Supreme Court upheld the government’s right to act against Japanese Americans living on the West Coast of the United States. On Dec. 18, 1944, the Supreme Court ruled in Korematsu v. United States that the wartime internment of Japanese-Americans was constitutional. A public apology was eventually issued by the United States government. In 1988, financial payment was made to survivors of internment camps (reparations). Minority Participation in World War II World War II solidified the nation’s role as a global power and ushered in social changes and established reform agendas that would preoccupy public discourse in the United States for the remainder of the 20th century. Americans and others struggled to obtain desegregation of the armed forces and end discriminatory hiring practices. Minority Participation and Minority Military Units: African Americans served in segregated units and were assigned to non-combat roles, but demanded the right to serve in combat rather than in support roles. The Tuskegee Airmen (African Americans) served in Europe with distinction. Nisei regiments (Asian American) earned a high number of decorations. Communication codes of the Navajo were used (oral, nonwritten language; impossible for the Japanese to break). They communicated military intelligence (information gathering or spying) in the Pacific. Mexican Americans fought, but in non-segregated units. Minority units suffered high casualties and won numerous unit citations and individual medals for bravery in action. Treatment of Various Groups during World War II The conduct of war often reflects social and moral codes of a nation. The treatment of prisoners of war often reflected the savage nature of conflict and the cultural norms of the nation. Treatment of Prisoners: The treatment of prisoners in the Pacific Theater often reflected the savagery of the fighting there. A POW is a prisoner of war captured by the enemy. In the Bataan Death March, American POW’s suffered brutal treatment by Japanese after surrender of the Philippines. Japanese soldiers often committed suicide rather than surrender. On February 19, 1942, soon after the beginning of World War II, Franklin D. Roosevelt signed an Executive Order which rounded-up and evacuated 120,000 Americans of Japanese heritage to internment camps. They were officially called “relocation centers”. This took place in California, Idaho, Utah, Arizona, Wyoming, Colorado, and Arkansas. The treatment of prisoners in Europe more closely followed the ideas of the Geneva Convention. The Geneva Convention attempted to ensure the humane treatment of prisoners of war by establishing rules to be followed by all nations. Japanese soldiers responded by stating “*teeth suck* there’s too many rules, I’m going back to Japan, dawg!” The Holocaust The Holocaust was the systematic effort to exterminate the Jews. The systematic and purposeful destruction of a racial, political, religious, or cultural group is called genocide. Affected Groups/Victims of the Holocaust: Jews: Hitler blamed the Jews for many of Germany’s economic problems. He rallied the country against them. Since 1945, the most commonly cited figure for the total number of Jews killed has been six million. The Final Solution was Germany’s decision to exterminate the Jews. Poles: During World War II Poland suffered greatly under five years of German occupation. Nazi ideology viewed "Poles"the predominantly Roman Catholic ethnic majority- as "subhumans" occupying lands vital to Germany. As part of the policy to destroy the Polish resistance, the Germans killed many of the nation's political, religious, and intellectual leaders. They also kidnapped children judged racially suitable for adoption by Germans and confined Poles in dozens of prisons and concentration and forced labor camps, where many perished. Gypsies: "Gypsies," or the "Roma" as they prefer to be called, are an ethnic group which originated in India (their languageRomany-is directly descended from Sanskrit) which for unknown reasons took to a wandering lifestyle in the late Middle Ages. Eventually they reached Europe and became part of the ethnic mix of many countries. Because they were strangers to many of the people they moved among, strong prejudices grew up, and indeed continue to this day. Slavs: A Slav is any member of the people of Eastern Europe or Asian Russia who speak a Slavonic language. “Undesirables” (Homosexuals, mentally ill, political dissidents): Anybody who was considered to be un-pure or genetically diseased were also sent to concentration and death camps. Dissidents are people who openly criticize the policies of his or her government. The Nuremburg Trials: In the Nuremberg trials, Nazi leaders and others were convicted of war crimes. There were long term effects of the Nuremberg Trials. The Nuremberg Trials emphasized individual responsibility for actions during a war, regardless of orders received. The trials led to increased demand for a Jewish homeland.