Download Translated by Chan Ying Kit

Translated by Chan Ying Kit
Preface
Technology is the backbone of a nation’s
development, fundamental to social progress
and economic prosperity. In global history, the
technological advancement of China had taken
the lead for a long period of time. The various
technological achievements of ancient China
had contributed significantly to world civilization.
For more than 5,000 years, the diligent and
intelligent Chinese people created a robust
scientific civilization, leaving behind a number
of achievements that warrant global attention.
In astrology, Chinese ancestors invented the
armillary sphere and the seismograph, as well
as having devised several calendars. The
Chinese had also invented the world’s earliest
automated observatory and the water clock
tower. In geography, Xuanzang wrote the worldrenowned Journey to the West, while Xu Xiake
completed a monumental geological work,
Journey of Xu Xiake. In the art of handicraft, the
Chinese invented the arrow and bow, bronze,
embroidery and silk. These inventions are pivotal
in advancing world civilization.
At the same time, China made tremendous
progress in the study of physics, chemistry,
m e d i c i n e , a r c h i t e c t u r e , t e x t i l e , p o t t e r y,
shipbuilding and waterworks. The ostensible
Four Great Inventions of the Chinese—
gunpowder, compass, paper and printing—had
promoted the advancement of world civilization
by their widespread adoption and use.
Technology creates as well as changes history.
Science and technology have influenced
productivity the most. Francis Bacon, an English
philosopher who pioneered the scientific
content_sciTech.indd 1
9/10/2012 5:59:25 PM
method of empirical enquiry, wrote that "printing,
gunpowder and the compass…whence have
followed innumerable changes, in so much
that no empire, no sect, no star seems to have
exerted greater power and influence in human
affairs than these mechanical discoveries.”
Understanding the history of Chinese science
and technology is integral to inheriting the
benefits from these inventions. The great
achievements of the ancient Chinese had proven
that the Chinese race has enormous creativity.
We could inherit this spirit of innovation and
active exploration, reviving past Chinese glories.
To realise this ambition, we have to study the
ancient Chinese inventions and learn from them
and their creators, reliving the imagination and
ingenuity of the Chinese people.
This book adopts a new layout to present
five millennia of technological development
in Chinese history. We have divided the book
into the sections of Astronomy, Geography,
Hydraulic Engineering, Architecture, Agriculture,
Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry, Medicine
and Handicraft in a bid to condense and
recapitulate Chinese civilization in a concise yet
comprehensive manner, providing readers with
a “delectable and wholesome” treat to Chinese
history in pictorial representations.
It is our hope that the book would serve as
an entertaining and educational compendium
of Chinese scientific and technological
accomplishments from time immemorial.
content_sciTech.indd 2
9/10/2012 5:59:25 PM
Contents
Astronomy 天文历法
Xia Xiao Zheng
《夏小正》
2
Gan Shi Star Manual
《甘石星经》
4
Zhoubi Classic in Calculation
《周髀算经》
6
Taichu Li
《太初历》
8
Zhang Heng
张衡
10
Zhang Heng’s Seismometer
候风地动仪
12
Qianxiang Li
《乾象历》
14
Great Brilliance Calendar (Daming Li)
《大明历》
16
Zhang Zixin’s Three Discoveries
Huangji Calendar
Yixing's Technological Achievements
Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era
Tower for Water-Powered Sphere & Globe
Twelve Qi Calendar
张子信
《皇极历》
一行
18
20
22
《开元占经》
24
水运仪象台
26
《十二气历》
28
Wang Xun
王恂
30
Simplified Armillary Sphere, and Works and
Days Calendar
仰仪和《授时历》
32
Wang Xichan
王锡阐
34
Geography 地理探索
The Classic of the Mountains and Seas
The Compass
《山海经》
指南针
38
40
Yu Gong Geographical Map
《禹贡地域图》
42
A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms
《佛国记》
44
Commentary on the Waterways Classic
《水经注》
46
Great Tang Records on the Western 《大唐西域记》
Regions
Dream Pool Essays (Mengxi Bitan)
The Voyages of Zheng He
content_sciTech.indd 3
48
《梦溪笔谈》
50
郑和下西洋
52
9/10/2012 5:59:25 PM
The Travelogues of Xu Xiake
《徐霞客游记》
54
T h e F a m o u s G e o g r a p h e r Ya n g
Shoujing
杨守敬
56
Li Siguang, Famous Scientist and
Geologist
李四光
58
Hydraulic Engineering 水利工程
Exploiting the Terrain for Flood Protection 大禹治水
Shaopei Dam
芍陂
Irrigation Canals from the Zhang River 引漳灌邺
into Ye
62
64
66
Dujiangyan Irrigation System
都江堰
68
Zhengguo Canal
郑国渠
70
Ling Canal
灵渠
72
Longshou Drain
龙首渠
74
Mystery of the Kan’er Wells
坎儿井之谜
76
Zhaozhou Bridge
赵州桥
78
Grand Canal
京杭大运河
80
Gezhou Dam
葛洲坝
82
Three Gorges Dam
三峡工程
84
Qufu Confucius Temple
曲阜孔庙
88
The Great Wall of China
长城
90
Yellow Crane Tower
黄鹤楼
92
Potala Palace
布达拉宫
94
Giant Wild Goose Pagoda
大雁塔
96
Architecture 建筑设计
Treatise on Architectural Methods
《营造法式》
98
Shanxi Ying County Wooden Pagoda
山西应县木塔
100
The Forbidden City
故宫
102
Zhuozheng Garden
拙政园
104
Suzhou Lingering Garden
苏州留园
106
Chengde Imperial Summer Villa
承德避暑山庄
108
Summer Palace
颐和园
110
content_sciTech.indd 4
9/10/2012 5:59:26 PM
Agriculture 农学农具
Ma Jun
马钧
114
Substituting Land Method
代田法
116
Book of Fan Shen
《汜胜之书》
118
Siming Yueling
《四民月令》
120
Essential Methods of the Common 《齐民要术》
People
122
Essence of Tea
Farming Plow Quyuanli
Wang Zhen's Book of Agriculture
Huang Daopo's Invention
《茶经》
124
曲辕犁
126
《王祯农书》
黄道婆
128
130
Nongzheng Quanshu
《农政全书》
132
Tiangong Kaiwu
《天工开物》
134
Yuan Longping
袁隆平
136
算筹
140
Mathematics 数学成就
The Counting-rods
The Nine Chapters on Mathematical Art
《九章算术》
142
The World's First Precise Calculation of
the Pi, π
圆周率
144
Mathematician Qin Jiushao
秦九韶
146
Southern Song Mathematician, Yang Hui
杨辉
148
Zhu Shijie and Jade Mirror of the Four 《四元玉鉴》
Unknowns
150
Pioneer of Contemporary Mathematics,
Li Shanlan
李善兰
152
Hua Luogeng
华罗庚
154
Chen Jingrun
陈景润
156
content_sciTech.indd 5
9/10/2012 5:59:27 PM
Physics & Chemistry 物理化学
《墨经》
160
Light-transmitting Mirror
透光镜
162
Invention of Hydraulic-Powered Blast
Furnace
水排
164
Paper-making Technology
造纸术
166
Mystery around the Invention of Gunpowder
火药
168
Movable Type Printing
活字印刷术
170
Watertight Compartment
水密隔舱
172
Zhan Tianyou
詹天佑
174
Hou Debang, the Great Chemist
侯德榜
176
Qian Xuesen, the Famous Physicist
钱学森
178
Qiang Sanqiang
钱三强
180
Deng Jiaxian
邓稼先
182
Wang Xuan
王选
184
Acupuncture
针灸
188
Massage
推拿按摩
190
The Divine Physician Bian Que's Medical
Contributions
扁鹊
192
Mo's Scripts
Medicine 医学药物
Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon
《黄帝内经》
194
Divine Farmer's Materia Medica
《神农本草经》
196
Huo Tuo, the Surgical Pioneer
华佗
198
Treatise on Cold Pathogenic and
Miscellaneous Diseases
《伤寒杂病论》
200
Canon of Acupuncture and Moxibustion
《针灸甲乙经》
202
The Pulse Classic
《脉经》
204
Handy Therapies for Emergencies
《肘后备急方》
206
Sun Simiao, the King of Medicine
孙思邈
208
Tang Materia Medica
《唐本草》
210
The World's First Forensic Book
《洗冤集录》
212
content_sciTech.indd 6
9/10/2012 5:59:27 PM
Zhu Su, Prince of Medical Achievements
朱橚
214
Compendium of Materia Medica
《本草纲目》
216
Orthodoxy in Surgery
《外科正宗》
218
Wu Youxing's School of Pestilential
Epidemics
Correction of Errors in Medical Classics
吴有性
《医林改错》
220
222
Handicraft 手工制造
Revolution of the Artisans
土木工具
226
The Kite
风筝
228
The Records of Examination of Craftsman
《考工记》
230
Xuan Paper
宣纸
232
Su Embroidery
苏绣
234
The Invention of Pottery
陶器
236
Lacquer Ware
漆器
238
The Invention of Bronze Ware
青铜器
240
The Invention of Porecelain
瓷器
242
The Yongle Bell
永乐大钟
244
content_sciTech.indd 7
9/10/2012 5:59:29 PM
Xia Xiao Zheng
China’s Earliest Calendar
X
ia Xiao Zheng is
China’s earliest
work on phenology and
agricultural almanac; the
work was an important
reference on climatic
conditions and changes in
the pre-Qin era.
Xia Xiao Zheng scrolls
Xia Xiao Zheng《夏小正》is one of the earliest documents
in ancient China. It is also the earliest remaining almanac
that adopts the Daylight Saving Time method of advancing
time. The various terms that the book uses are simple and
succinct, but the content remains extensive. Also, the book
uses a 12-month system to record the phenology, weather,
climate and important political events, especially the events
that portrayed China as an agrarian society.
The book shows that the crops that the pre-Qin
Chinese had cultivated included cereals, fibrous plants,
dyes and horticultural crops; other activities were rearing
silkworms and livestock, fishing and hunting. Rearing of
silkworms and horses was significant. The neutering of
horses, the production of blue dye and the cultivation of
Brassica, peaches and apricots are recorded in the book,
constituting their first historical documentation.
The most outstanding part of Xia Xiao Zheng is on
phenology. Owing to agricultural needs of the time, the
book records phenological information that determines
the time or season most suitable for farming. The Chinese
had used the book to document their agricultural activities
conducted in different months. Most of the texts are
arranged in lines of two to four characters. To record the
change in climate, the book describes the palpable changes
in plants and animals. In addition, the book uses terms
from visible constellations such as Chen San (辰参)and
Zhi Nü 织女 (Weaver Girl) for greater clarity. The book,
however, lacks records of constellations for the months
of November, December and February. Also, the concept
of the four seasons and the 24 solar terms had not been
established yet. Xia Xiao Zheng does not mention anything
about handicraft; labour distribution at that time was not
advanced. This also shows that Xia Xiao Zheng is a book or
almanac of great antiquity.
2
Sci_Tec.indd FINAL.indd 2
9/10/2012 5:22:06 PM
C H IN E S E S C IE N C E A N D TEC H N O LO G Y
A Chinese traditional
astrological chart
Great debate has been raved on the completion of Xia
Xiao Zheng. The general consensus is that it was completed
in the Spring and Autumn Period. Before the Sui Dynasty,
the book comprised only one chapter in Book of Rites of Dai
《大戴礼记》that Dai Dehui of Western Han had written.
Later, the book emerged as an offprint and was published
for the first time in Chronicles of Sui《隋书•经籍志》.
From the Northern Song to the Qing Dynasty, more than 10
revisions of the book were made.
Rumours had it that Yu of the Xia Dynasty “issued Xia
Calendar to tributary states”. In Book of Rites, Confucius
said, “I would like to experience the rites of Xia; it is the
predecessor of Ji that I cannot analyse in depth. I have the
Xia Calendar.” Zheng Xuanjian said, “For those who possess
the Xia Calendar, there is a chapter entitled Xiao Zheng in
the document.” In Historical Records of Xia 《史记•夏本纪》,
Sima Qian wrote that Confucius had used Xia Calendar
along with many other scholars. All these records confirm
that Xia Xiao Zheng was used before the Spring and Autumn
Period.
C o n t e m p o r a r y s c h o l a r s X i a We i y i n g a n d F a n
Chuyu argue that the scripts in Xia Xiao Zheng might
have originated in the Shang or Zhou Dynasty. The other
possibility is that Huaihai residents had compiled it before
the Spring and Autumn Period. Xia Xiao Zheng contains
vivid details about the legendary Xia Dynasty and provides
important information for the analysis of ancient Chinese
agricultural technology. The chapter Zhuan in Xia Xiao
Zheng was written by the people of the Warring States
Period. Regarding the regions that were referred to in Xia
Xiao Zheng, Xia Weiying posits that the scripts clearly
reflect the phenology of the Huaihai region. However, not
all scholars hold his view.
Dai’s Xia Xiao Zheng,
compiled by Bo Songqing
in the Song Dynasty
Origin of the Weaver Girl
The seventh lunar month is the
time when summer gradually
turns into autumn, so it was
an important month on the
calendar. The author of Xia Xiao
Zheng went to great lengths to
describe the celestial features
of the seventh lunar month.
Besides the movement of the
Milky Way and the Big Dipper,
the author also mentioned the
Weaver Girl star. Nevertheless,
on a starry sky, the Weaver
Girl looks like any other star.
Slightly brighter than the rest, it
does not have any other unique
features. Why did the ancient
Chinese adore this star so much
as to adorn it with a name and
poignant legend?
In the seventh month, the
summer heat began to subside
and the wind turned cold. At
this time, ladies began to spin
and weave, making winter
clothes to prepare for cold
autumn and harsh winter. This is
when the Weaver Girl reached
its apogee in the sky. On the
ground, ladies manoeuvred
the spinning wheel and sang
under the starry sky. In the sky,
the Weaver Girl shone brightly
as the ladies weaved, and it
became the celestial patron of
the weaving ladies.
3
Sci_Tec.indd FINAL.indd 3
9/10/2012 5:22:07 PM
Gan Shi Star Manual
The World’s First Astronomical Book
D
uring the Eastern
Zhou period,
productivity levels rose
rapidly, and astronomers
achieved significant
breakthroughs in their
field. The Gan Shi Star
Manual became the
world’s first star-catalogue,
contributing to the
historical development of
astronomical research in
both China and the world.
Statue of Gan De
observing the stars
China is one of the birthplaces of astronomy. To meet the
needs of agricultural production and calendar-charting, the
Chinese started to observe and record the stars and signs,
using their observations and records to define directions,
time and seasons. During the Eastern Zhou period, Gan De
of the Chu state and Shi Shen of the Wei state conducted
astronomical research and after years of observation, each
produced a book that documented their findings. Gan De
wrote the Tianwen Xingzhan《天文星占》, and Shi Shen,
Tianwen《天文》; each book contained eight volumes.
During the Han Dynasty, readers produced and circulated
the books separately, until other writers collected excerpts
from the two books and compiled them into the Gan Shi
Star Manual《甘石星经》.
Shi Shen devised a nomenclature different from that
of Gan De for the constellations and stars that he had
observed. Shi Shen’s nomenclature was to name a particular
asterism (a pattern of stars on Earth’s night sky) and
determine the number of stars that the asterism contained.
Using Shi Shen’s method, a star was designated as “Asterism
name plus Number”. During the Three Kingdoms period,
Chen Zhuo consolidated the star charts of Gan De, Shi Shen
and another astronomer Wu Xian and derived a total of
283 constellations and 1,464 stars from them, of which 146
constellations were recorded by Gan De; all the 1,464 fixed
stars were marked in a star map in different colours. Later
astronomers used the map to work out a star atlas and a
celestial sphere. Gan De, therefore, contributed much to the
naming of the constellations; he also measured and deduced
the positions of the stars, but the results of his findings had
been lost.
Shi Shen made exceptional breakthroughs in studying
the motion of Venus, Jupiter, Mercury, Mars and Saturn. He
calculated that Jupiter is visible from Earth every 400 days
4
Sci_Tec.indd FINAL.indd 4
9/10/2012 5:22:09 PM
C H IN E S E S C IE N C E A N D TEC H N O LO G Y
(the synoptic period), deviating from the accurate time of
398.88 days by only 1.12 days. Shi Shen also discovered
that the motion of Jupiter is not constant, and that Jupiter
often strays from the ecliptic (the plane of Earth’s orbit
around the Sun), reflecting superior standards in Chinese
astronomy. In addition, Shi Shen determined the visible
cycle of Mercury from Earth to be 136 days, deviating from
the actual duration of 115 days; although the discrepancy
is significant, Shi Shen understood the four stages of the
motion of Mercury. Finally, Shi Shen was the first person to
observe the retrograde motion of Mars, having calculated
the visible cycle of Mars to be 410.780 days, close to the
actual figure.
Later generations called the compilations by Gan De
and Shi Shen the Gan Shi Star Manual. The Gan Shi Star
Manual was the world’s first star-catalogue that emerged
before the Greek astronomer Hipparchus compiled his
findings two centuries later. The Manual, however, was
lost during the Song Dynasty, and fragments of which were
found incorporated in the Kaiyuan Zhanjing《开元占经》
(The Kaiyuan Reign Treatise on Astrology and Astronomy).
The Gan Shi Star Manual was, in fact, the first
astronomical book in both China and the world. The book
enjoyed a lasting heritage as a reference for determining the
position and motion of the Sun, the Moon and the planets.
In particular, Shi Shen’s star-catalogue was fundamental to
the measurement of celestial bodies because it expresses
the 28 lunar constellations in the ascensional differences
of their respective stars as arranged along the equator
from west to east, as well as the angle between the fixed
star and the celestial pole. The
star catalogue was a unique
Chinese contribution to world
astronomy because it adopted
the equatorial coordinate
system instead of the Western
ecliptic coordinate system to
mark the positions of fixed
stars.
Gan Shi Star Manual. Shi Shen
Tianwen became known as Shi’s
Star Manual after the Western Han
Dynasty.
Shi Shen Moon Crater
Many annals, official records
and astronomical books had
referred to the Gan Shi Star
Manual. To commemorate Shi
Shen’s achievements, the crater
Shi Shen on the Moon is named
after him. The crater is the most
notable feature on the Moon’s
surface, located near the North
Pole of the Moon, resting on
the coordinates of 105 degrees
east and 76 degrees north, and
having an area of 350 sq km.
5
Sci_Tec.indd FINAL.indd 5
9/10/2012 5:22:10 PM
Zhoubi Classic in
Calculation
China's First Astronomical Monograph
T
he Zhoubi Classic
in Calculation
(Zhoubi Suanjing) is
the first Chinese book
on astronomy to date,
detailing the height of
mountains and the area
of land. The book features
the size and distance of
celestial bodies, as well as
a proof of the Pythagorean
Theorem, so it was crucial
to the mathematical and
scientific development of
later generations.
Zhoubi Suanjing
Zhoubi Suanjing《周髀算经》is viewed as the best of
the top 10 Chinese mathematical texts. Originally named
Zhoubi, the book is China’s first canonical work on
astronomy, dating from the Han Dynasty, although some
historians argue that the book was produced earlier in the
Zhou Dynasty and finalised in the Western Han Dynasty.
Conventional wisdom decrees that the Zhoubi
Suanjing is a mathematical text. The book, however, is
actually an astronomical work that associates mathematical
concepts with astronomical observations. To discuss the
astronomical calendar and laws, the book records and
narrates several mathematical concepts and knowledge,
emphasising the Pythagorean Theorem, ratio measurement,
and the computation of stellar orientation to explain the
two concepts of the celestial sphere and the QuarterRemainder Calendar.
The concept of the celestial sphere is included in the
earliest Chinese cosmological theory. The theory proposes
that Heaven is a spherical umbrella that covers the square
Earth; Earth is like a chessboard, above which the Sun,
the Moon and the stars move. Therefore, the theory is also
known as the “Spherical Heaven and Square Earth” theory.
Another precept of the theory is that the celestial bodies
of the Sun, the Moon and the stars do not emerge and
disappear; optical illusion results in their invisibility when
they are afar and visibility when they are near. At the writing
of the Zhoubi Suanjing, the celestial sphere theory became a
complete and quantitative system of measuring standards,
reflecting progress in Chinese cosmological understanding
and astronomical development.
Have you wondered, on a starry night, how high the
sky is? Thousands of years ago, our human ancestors had
pondered over the same question. The Zhoubi Suanjing
records a tale in which the legendary Duke Zhou asked the
6
Sci_Tec.indd FINAL.indd 6
9/10/2012 5:22:10 PM
C H IN E S E S C IE N C E A N D TEC H N O LO G Y
mathematician
Shang Zhou,
“How high is the
sky?” Shang Zhou
replied, “Using
the Pythagorean
Theorem, we
can calculate
the height of the
sky from Earth.”
So, what is the
Pythagorean
Theorem? On a piece of paper, draw a rectangle of breadth
3 cm and length 4 cm. Next, draw a diagonal line across the
shape and measure it; you would realise that the diagonal
line is 5 cm long. The Pythagorean Theorem is in practice
here, and it is also known as the Shang Zhou Theorem.
Zhoubi Suanjing also records how our human
ancestors used simple arithmetic to calculate the distance
between Earth and the Sun: first, enact tall poles of 8 feet
across the land and record the length of the pole shadow at
noon; the records show that the one in Chang’an measures
one foot six inch and that in a location that is 1 km south of
Chang’an, it is one foot five inch; the records reveal that for
every 1 km moved from Chang’an along the north-south
axis, the shadow of the pole would differ by an inch. The
experiment was done in summer and in winter, and ancient
people calculated the distance between Earth and the Sun
to be 100,000 li. Although the figure is a far cry from the
actual distance of 149,500,000 km, the method that the
Chinese had adopted was correct.
Zhoubi Suanjing also writes about the square root and
arithmetical progression, as well as the Quarter-Remainder
Calendar, suggestive of the mathematical complexity and
capacity of the Chinese.
The Ten Mathematical
Manuals
The Ten Mathematical
Manuals
The Ten Mathematical Classics
refer to ten mathematical
books written over a span of
a millennium from the Han to
the Tang Dynasty. These books
were assigned textbooks at the
Imperial Academy of the Sui
Dynasty. They are:
1. Zhoubi Classic in Calculation
(Zhoubi Suanjing)
2. Nine Chapters on
Mathematical Art (Jiuzhang
Suanshu)
3. Sea Island Mathematical
Manual (Haidao Suanjing)
4. Mathematical Manual of the
Five Government Departments
(Wucao Suanjing)
5. Mathematical Manual of
Sunzi (Sunzi Suanjing)
6. Mathematical Manual of
Xiahou Yang (Xiahou Yang
Suanjing)
7. Mathematical Manual of
Zhang Qiujian (Zhang Qiujian
Suanjing)
8. Five Classics Mathematical
Art (Wujing Suanshu)
9. Continuation of Ancient
Mathematics (Jigu Suanjing)
10. The “Stitching” Method
(Zhuishu)
By the time the Song contemporaries compiled and printed the
Ten Mathematical Manuals,
The “Stitching” Method and
Mathematical Manual of
Xiahou Yang were already lost,
so Shushu Jiyi replaced the
former and Hanyan Suanshu,
the latter, retaining the name
Mathematical Manual of Xiahou
Yang.
7
Sci_Tec.indd FINAL.indd 7
9/10/2012 5:22:10 PM
Taichu Li
Earliest and Most Complete
Calendrical System
T
he formulation of
the Taichu Li is a
major achievement
in the historical
development of
Chinese calendrical
science, as well as in
Chinese cosmological
theory. The Taichu Li
is China’s first and
most comprehensive
calendrical system
of which adequate
records are
preserved, and it
had been the most
advanced system
in the world at its
inception.
In the early years of the Western Han Dynasty, people used
the Calendar of the Legendary Emperor Zhuanxu, known as
Zhuanxu Li 《颛顼历》devised in the Qin era. Discrepancies
between this calendar and astronomical occurrences,
however, were already noticed, so Emperor Han Wudi
accepted the counsel of Sima Qian and others to revise
the calendrical system in 104 BC. The Emperor assigned
his courtiers Gongsun Qing, Hu Sui and Sima Qian to
recruit and lead more than 20 astronomers to devise a new
calendrical system, and these astronomers included Deng
Ping, Sima Ke, Hou Yijun, Tang Du, and Luo Xiahong (落下
闳).
The imperial team possibly used apparatus and
instruments, as well as hypotheses and inferences to
propose 18 calendrical systems. After repeated debate,
experimentations and analyses, the Emperor chose the
system that Deng Ping and Luo Xiahong had proposed.
The Emperor changed the name of his reign from Yuanfeng
to Taichu, pronouncing that any year henceforth had 12
months, and that a year began in spring and ended in winter.
The Taichu Li《太初历》is China’s first imperial
enactment of a calendrical system. In the system, the
tropical year is 365.2502 days and the synodic month is
29.53086 days. Instead of having the 10th month as the
beginning month of the year, the system determines the
first month to start the year. The system adopts the 24 solar
terms that are suited for an agrarian China, resolving the
discrepancies between the solar and the lunar cycles.
Luo Xiahong’s Calendrical System
Astronomers devised the Taichu Li based on astronomical
data and statistics. After careful measurements and
calibrations, they formulated the comprehensive system
of the Taichu Li. The system conceives that the Sun circles
Bronze statue of Luo Xiahong
8
Sci_Tec.indd FINAL.indd 8
9/10/2012 5:22:11 PM
C H IN E S E S C IE N C E A N D TEC H N O LO G Y
Earth, and Luo Xiahong’s system unifies the qualitative and
the quantitative in setting the 10 basic cycles in his calendar:
Huigui, Zhirun, Rishi, Ganzhi Year, Ganzhi Day, Jupiter,
Mars, Saturn, Venus and Mercury.
Innovations in Time Periodisation
The Taichu Li defines the first month in spring as the start
of a year, and has hence harmonised and unified time for
annals, imperial reigns and agricultural production. It also
determines the month without the zhongqi (中气) (midperiod; without the 12 or 24 solar terms) as the lunyue (闰
月) (leap month). The Taichu Li remained in use from the
Western Han Dynasty to the late Ming period for almost
two millennia. The new 24 fortnightly periods or solar terms
have allowed the Chinese peasants to foretell seasonal
changes and make adequate arrangements for agricultural
production.
Innovations in Cycle Space
Luo Xiahong’s calendrical system includes the Sun, the
Moon and the five planets. In the Book of Classics《书
经•尧典》, compiled between 800 BC and 500 BC, it is
written that “if birds fly in the day and stars appear at night,
it is spring; if the day is long and the stars are bright, it is
summer; if the night is moderate and few stars appear at
night, it is autumn; if the night is long and the stars are high
in the sky, it is winter.” This ancient text forms the basis
of Luo Xiahong’s calendrical system of defining the four
seasons.
The Taichu Li is China’s most well-preserved written
calendrical system. The system calibrates the algebraic
structure of cosmic images that is fundamentally different
from the commonly known calendrical laws. In short, the
Taichu Li is technically more advanced than the previous
calendars of Yellow Emperor Calendar (黄帝历 Huangdi
Li), Calendar of the Legendary Emperor Zhuanxu (颛顼
历 Zhuanxu Li), Summer Calendar (夏历 Xia Li), Shang
Calendar (殷历 Yin Li), Zhou Calendar (周历 Zhou Li), and
Lu Calendar (鲁历 Lu Li).
Han stone
relief of
the solar
and lunar
eclipses
Liu Xin and Three Sequences
Calendar (Santong Li)
Western Han scholar Liu Xin
revised the Taichu Li by applying
the Three Sequences saying of
Dong Zhongshu. In computing
the Three Sequences system,
Liu Xin adopted the Metonic
Cycle zhang as the starting
point (i.e. 235 lunations in 19
years) and 1 tong (sequence)
= 81 zhang = 1,539 years
and 3 tong = 1 yuan (epoch)
= 4,617 years, hence the
“Three Sequences”. Liu Xin
attempted to find the time when
the Sun, the Moon and the five
planets were all in conjunction
with Earth. The year, the day
and the hour would all be
denoted by the jiazi sexagenary
cycle. The computation of
the coincidence was extremely
complex, and it became more
so as astronomical observations
became more accurate. The
Three Sequences Calendar,
therefore, is the world’s first
astronomical calendar.
9
Sci_Tec.indd FINAL.indd 9
9/10/2012 5:22:11 PM