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Astronomy,
Myths & Legends
of the Ancient Egyptians
Volume 1
by Monica Sevilla
Contents
Stars and Galaxies
The Constellations
The Giza Pyramids and the Belts Stars of Orion
Ancient Egyptian Pyramids: Resurrection Machines
Ancient Egyptians and the Sphinx
The Sun
Ancient Egyptians and the Creation of the World
The Pharaohs: The Horus Kings
Ancient Egyptians and their Tombs
The Sun and the Gods
Stars and Galaxies
The early universe was extremely
hot. As it cooled, sub atomic
particles began to clump together
and formed the first atom, the
hydrogen atom. Later, as the
universe began to cool even further,
dust and hydrogen gas joined
together through the force of gravity
and became dense enough to form
the first stars, the protostars.
Through extreme heat and pressure,
hydrogen gas atoms began to fuse together. The result of
this nuclear fusion produced light and heat energy. This
process describes the formation of the first stars.
Billions and billions of stars were
created through this process and
grouped together to form the
galaxies within the universe today.
Galaxies are massive systems of
stars, dust, and gas held together by
gravity. Gravity causes stars to
attract each other and clump
together into groups. Because stars
have extreme amounts of mass,
they exert the force of gravity, the
attractive force which draws other objects with mass, such
as other stars, to itself.
Our sun and our solar system is part of a
galaxy known as the Milky Way. It is
described as a spiral galaxy because its
shape looks like a spiral. On a dark
night, the edge of the Milky Way can be
seen in the Northern Sky. The Milky Way
was named after the fact that the
multitude of stars that could be seen in
this region of the sky looked milky white.
One of the closest galaxies to the Milky Way is the
Andromeda galaxy which is 1 million light years away.
The distance between galaxies is measured in light years.
A light year is about 9.5 trillion kilometers or it is the
distance light travels in a year.
Knowledge and Comprehension
Words to Know:
Protostars:
Stars:
Galaxy:
Gravity:
Milky Way
Light Year
1. How would you describe a galaxy?
2. How is the distance between galaxies measured?
Application, Analysis, Evaluation and Synthesis
3. Explain how the stars within a galaxy are held together
in a group.
4. Describe the formation of the first stars.
5. Describe the process of how stars began to shine.
6. Is it possible for humans to travel to the Andromeda
galaxy? Explain why or why not.
7. Why do you think the distance between galaxies is
measured in light years and not kilometers.
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The Constellations!
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The universe is made up of trillions of stars. Some of
these stars are close to the
Earth, and some are more
distant. Some of these stars are
located within the Milky Way
while others are located in other
galaxies. A galaxy is a cluster of
billions of stars. The
constellations are groups of
specific stars that can be seen in
the night sky. Constellations are
also known as “asterisms.”!
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In ancient times, the early stargazers noticed that some
groups of stars had different shapes and different patterns.
Some of these shapes were of familiar animals, people,
and other objects. As they watched the sky from night to
night, they noticed that the constellations moved from one
location to another throughout the year. This was easily
seen with the constellations of the zodiac. The zodiac
includes 12 groups of stars, each representing one month
of the year. The constellations include Capricorn,
Aquarius, Pisces, Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo,
Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, and Sagittarius. This later became
the basis of the 12 month Julian calendar adopted by
Julius Caesar and the Romans. Each month and
constellation of the zodiac was dedicated to a god. They
can be seen just above the Earth’s horizon. The horizon
is where the earth meets the sky. They are also seen
traveling on the ecliptic or the plane on which all of the
orbits of the planets travel upon as they make their journey
around the sun. !
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Constellations were incorporated into many myths and
legends in ancient times. One of the most ancient
astronomical systems was the Babylonian system. This
system began in the middle of the Bronze age. These
early astronomers based the names for the constellations
on the older astronomical system used by the Sumerians.
The Sumerians were conquered by the Akkadians, and the
Babylonians, who were themselves members of an
Akkadian kingdom, “borrowed” this astronomical
knowledge and incorporated it into their belief system.!
Knowledge and Comprehension!
Words to Know:!
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Constellation:!
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Horizon:!
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Ecliptic:!
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Zodiac:!
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Borrowed:!
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1. In your own words, explain what the zodiac is.!
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2. What is a constellation? !
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Application, Analysis, Evaluation and Synthesis!
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3. Are constellations made up of stars that are close to
one another in distance? Justify your answer with
evidence from the text.!
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4. How were the constellations of the zodiac related to the
first 12 month calendar? How does this also connect
with their religious beliefs?!
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5. In your opinion, why do you think the Babylonians
based their astronomy system on the Sumerian system?!
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The Giza Pyramids and the Belt Stars of Orion!
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The constellation of Orion was a very
important part of ancient Egyptian
myths and legends about Osiris. The
constellations are groups of specific
stars that can be seen in the night sky
as shapes or symbols. The Egyptians
knew the constellation of Orion as their
god, Osiris. He was the God of rebirth
and eternal life. Osiris was known as
the first ruler or King of Egypt. Osiris
became memorialized in the sky as a
constellation.!
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It was the pharaohs belief that they were the descendants
of Osiris and his sister-wife, Isis. They believed that when
they died, Osiris would transform them into a star in the
sky. They would spend their eternal lives in the heavens
with Osiris and the other gods. They also believed that
their divine right to rule over Egypt came from the Gods.
As part of their reverence for the Gods, they incorporated
archeoastronomy into their architecture into their temples
and cities. Archeoastronomy is the use of the
phenomenon in the sky within their culture and the
alignment of the planets, the moon, the sun or the stars to
the structures they built such as the pyramids at Giza. !
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The three largest pyramids
on the Giza Plateau were
aligned, or in line with, and
constructed about 5,000
years ago with the same
pattern as the belt stars of
Orion. The belt stars are
the three stars in the middle
of the constellation Orion.
Robert Bauval, the author of The Orion Mystery, made this
discovery in 1983. The Nile River, in relation to the Giza
Plateau, was also in the same
relative position as the edge of the
Milky Way galaxy in the sky. These
two findings, taken together,
demonstrated that the Egyptians
created a perfect reflection of the sky
at that exact moment in time and
superimposed it upon the Earth in
Egypt. If a picture is taken from sky
looking down on to the Giza Plateau
and the Nile River, it would look as if
this was a star map of the night sky
from thousands of years ago. !
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Knowledge and Comprehension!
Words to Know:!
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Constellations:!
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Orion:!
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Archeoastronomy:!
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Aligned:!
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Belt Stars of Orion:!
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1. Who was Osiris?!
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2. Why was the constellation Orion important to the !
Ancient Egyptians?!
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Application, Analysis, Evaluation and Synthesis!
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3. What did the ancient Egyptian Pharoahs believe about !
their God Osiris?!
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4. Explain did the Egyptians practice archeoastronomy !
with the late pyramids of Egypt?!
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5. Explain what author Robert Bauval discovered about !
the belt stars of Orion and the Milky Way. How is this !
discovery important?!
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6. In your opinion, what would the Egyptians have needed !
to know or have knowledge of in order to align the !
Pyramids to Orion’s belt?!
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Ancient Egyptian Pyramids:
Resurrection Machines
The ancient Egyptians believed
that when the Pharaoh died, he or
she could be resurrected and live
in the afterlife. They also believed
that the Pharaoh was divine and
his or her soul or ba would be
transformed into a star where he
or she would live eternally.
In predynastic times, they associated the physical location
where this would occur and this place was among the
circumpolar stars, the stars that moved around the North
pole. These stars never rose and never set. They looked
as if they were fixed in the sky. They were seen as
“eternal” because they were always present in the
northern sky. These stars became associated with eternal
life and were also believed to be the immortal forms of
their gods as well.
The pyramids were constructed as “resurrection
machines” to help the soul or ba of a Pharaoh transition
from the bodily form into its immortal form. The soul was
believed to transform into the form of a star through the
help of the high priest and the funerary rites that were
performed. The pyramids and tombs were aligned or lined
up in a north-south orientation so that they faced north.
These structures were constructed to face the circumpolar
stars, which at this time, were the stars of the Big Dipper
in the Northern region of the sky. The Big Dipper is an
asterism, a group of stars, within the constellation of Ursa
Major or the “Big Bear.” It was thought that the Pharaoh’s
soul would be able to ascend or rise up to this location in
the sky if the pyramid or tomb was aligned with the star,
Alkaid, located in the handle of the Big Dipper. Once the
soul reached this destination, it became one of the
“eternal” stars.
Source:
Bauval, Robert and Thomas Brophy, PhD. Imhotep, The
African: Architect of the Cosmos. 2013. Disinformation
Books. Pp.
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Knowledge and Comprehension
Words to Know:
Ba:
Circumpolar Stars:
Resurrection Machine:
Big Dipper :
Asterism:
Ursa Major:
Alkaid:
1. What did the Egyptians believe about the happens to a
Pharaoh when he dies?
2. Explain why the Big Dipper is an asterism.
Application, Analysis, Evaluation and Synthesis
3. Explain why the circumpolar stars were viewed as
“eternal” by the Egyptians.
4. How did the pyramid fulfill the role of a “resurrection
machine.”
5. Explain why tombs and pyramids were constructed to
face in the Northern direction.
Ancient Egyptians and the Sphinx
The ancient Egyptians were
masters of re-creating what they
observed in the night time sky onto
the Earth. This concept, known as
dualism, is the division of
something within the physical world
into two opposing or contrasting
aspects. As part of their spiritual
beliefs, they imagined the Earth to
be the counterpart or opposite to
the celestial realm, or the sky. They believed that the
Earth and the sky were intimately connected, and
achieved a sense of balance and order together. They
recounted these beliefs in the form
of stories or myths. A myth was
one way in which they could
communicate and explain their
understanding of the natural
phenomenon that they saw and
observed on the Earth and in the
sky, as well as, social conditions.
A classic example of dualism in the ancient world of the
Egyptians includes the Sphinx and the Pyramids of Giza.
The constellation Leo, in Egyptian myth, was known as the
protector of the underworld.
This mythological creature stood at the gates of the
underworld and watched over this realm, as well as, the
Osiris, the God of the Underworld. Every year, the
Egyptians watched a celestial or sky drama unfold as the
their God Horus, the son of
Osiris, embarked on his
journey to visit his father,
crossing the great cosmic
river, the Milky Way, and
reuniting with Osiris in the
underworld. The
constellation Orion was
believed to be the God
Osiris, and that region of
the sky, the Underworld.
The sun was seen to rise from the paws of the
constellation Leo on the horizon, or the place where the
Earth meets the sky, at dawn on the day of the vernal or
spring equinox, March 21. This journey took 70 days as
the Sun was observed to change its position in the sky
until it finally rose near the constellation of Orion.
The pharoahs were believed to be the divine, the children
of the God Osiris. They believed that they represented his
son on Earth, the God Horus, and were known as the
Horus Kings. Every year, they re-enacted this celestial
drama to prepare for their journey into the afterlife when
they died. They physically set out on a journey, on the day
of the vernal equinox, crossed the Nile river, and
disembarking at the Giza Plateau, which was known to
them as the earthly counterpart of the “underworld on the
horizon.” The pharoah would then travel to the location in
between the paws of the Sphinx, the earthly location of the
gates of the Underworld, then walk up a concourse to the
Great Pyramid. The Great Pyramid, they believed, was
where they were reunited with their father, the God Osiris,
in the Underworld.
Knowledge and Comprehension
Words to Know:
Dualism:
Counterpart:
Myths:
Celestial:
Horizon:
Vernal or Spring Equinox:
Horus Kings:
1. What is dualism?
2. What are myths?
Application, Analysis, Evaluation and Synthesis
3. Is the Sphinx an example of dualism? Explain why or
why not. Use evidence from the text to support your
answer.
4. Why did the ancient Egyptians create a myth about the
journey of the sun from the constellation Leo to the
constellation Orion? Support your answer with
evidence from the text.
5. Why, in your opinion, did the ancient Egyptians use
dualism? Do we still use this concept today? Why or why
not?
The Sun
Stars are celestial objects that shine brightly in the sky
through the production of its own light and energy.
The sun is a normal main
sequence star that is a type G2
star. The sun is the brightest
object in our Solar System. It is
over 4.5 billion years old. It is
99.8% of the total mass, or
total amount of matter, of the
Solar System. The sun was
known to the Greeks as Helios and to the Romans as Sol.
It was known as the giver of life in the ancient world.
Without the sun, life would not be possible on Earth.
The sun is made up of plasma that is mostly of the two
lightest elements within the
universe, hydrogen (70%) and
30% helium. A plasma is a
state in which subatomic
particles such as electrons
have been stripped away from
the nuclei of atoms. The sun
actively converts hydrogen
atoms to helium atoms through nuclear fusion reactions.
Nuclear fusion reactions, within the core or the center of
sun, fuse the nuclei of hydrogen atoms together to
produce helium atoms. In order for this to occur, the
conditions within the core must be at a high temperature
and pressure. The temperature within the core is 15.6
million Kelvin. The pressure, the force per unit area,
within this region is 250 billion atmospheres. One day, our
sun will run out of hydrogen atoms to use as fuel and its
life cycle will end. The result is that
our sun will expand, explode, and
collapse in on itself becoming a white
dwarf star.
The energy produced by the sun is
given off in different forms.
Electromagnetic radiation, energy
within the electromagnetic spectrum,
is emitted in the form of light and
ultraviolet (UV). The sun also produces gamma rays,
energy outside the electromagnetic spectrum, as well.
The sun has a power output of 386 billion billion
megawatts. Its corona, latin or crown, extends millions of
kilometers into space and distributes this energy in all
directions away from the surface of the sun.
Knowledge and Comprehension
Words to Know:
Stars:
Mass:
Plasma:
Nuclear Fusion Reactions:
Core:
Pressure.
Electromagnetic Radiation:
Corona:
1. What is a star?
2. How is a plasma formed?
Application, Analysis, Evaluation and Synthesis
3. Explain how the sun produces its own energy.
4. Describe the 2 most important factors that need to be
present within the core of the sun for nuclear fusion
reactions to occur. Why is this important?
5. Explain what will happen when the sun runs out of
fuel?
6. If 70% of the sun’s hydrogen supply is left, and its age is
approximately 4.5 billion years old, how long would it
take it to use the rest of its supply?
7. How many sun-like stars do you think we have in our
Milky Way galaxy? Justify your answer.
The Ancient Egyptians and the Creation of the World!
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The Ancient Egyptians recounted or explained
their understanding of cosmology or study of
the cosmos in the form of stories called
myths. They believed that the universe
came into being by the actions of the
creator god or sun god Atum, who rose
up out of the primordial waters and came
to rest upon the back of the God Ptah.
Atum then created 8 more gods from
four pairs of parts of own body. These 8
gods represented the first creatures to
inhabit or live on the Earth and
included: Shu and Tefnut (air and
water), Geb and Nut (earth and sky),
Osiris (god of the underworld) and Isis !
(wife of Osiris); and Seth (opposite of
good) and Nephthys (wife of Seth). All
together they formed the Ennead or
group of 9 gods. This myth, as it turns
out, may explain the astronomical
phenomenon of the creation of our Solar
System from a solar nebula. !
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The French astronomer Pierre Simon Laplace, in the 18th
century, proposed a theory, called the Nebula theory, to
explain the origin and the evolution of our Solar System. This
model suggests that the Solar System was formed from a
nebula of cloud of dust and gas. The dust and condenses
together to form a solar disc which will later become a star
such as our sun. The material that is left over clumps
together to form the planets, asteroids, meteorites and
comets.!
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Incredible as it may be, their is a possible connection between
the Egyptian creation myth and
Laplace’s proposed theory. The
sun god Atum may have been
the solar disc that gave rise to
our Sun, the creator of life. The
8 “gods” or “the four pairs of
parts from his own body” may
have represented the 8 major
planets in our solar system that
were seen traveling in the
ancient sky: Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune. Pluto was too small to be seen by the
naked eye. !
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How did the Egyptians possess this
knowledge? Can we infer that they
viewed our Solar System as
heliocentric (sun-centered) and not
geocentric (Earth-centered)?
Historical records suggest that the
ancient Egyptians have been tracking
and studying the sun, the stars, and
the planets in the night sky since
9,500 B.C. Their superb knowledge of astronomy was
preserved and passed down from generation to generation,
and from millennium to millennium. It was written in
hieroglyphics within the books of Thoth, and were kept in the
temples and libraries by the astronomer-priests who served
their Pharoahs. Some of this knowledge, known as the
pyramid texts, was also written on the walls of the pyramids.
As scholars, these astronomer-priests taught famous Greek
intellectuals and philosophers who wanted to study science
and mathematics in Egypt, within their famous centers of
learning such as the temples of Heliopolis, Memphis, Thebes,
and Alexandria. !
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Source: Stolen Legacy: Greek Philosophy is Stolen Egyptian
Philosophy by George G. M. James, Ph.D. University of
Arkansas, Pine Bluff!
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Knowledge and Comprehension!
Words to Know:!
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Cosmology:!
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Myths:!
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Atum:!
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Ennead:!
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Nebula:!
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Heliocentric:!
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Geocentric:!
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Focus Questions:!
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1. Summarize what the Egyptians believe about the
creation of the world was created in your own words.!
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2. Compare what the Egyptians believed about the
creation of the Earth and the Nebula theory. Point out
the similarities and the differences between the two. !
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3. How was knowledge about astronomy preserved from
millennium to millennium?!
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Construct an Argument!
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Read the article “The Ancient Egyptians and the Creation
of the World and develop an argument to support the
claim: the Ancient Egyptians used stories to explain
the natural phenomenon they observed. Use evidence
from the text to support your response. !
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Gathering Evidence!
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Create a list of evidence from the text that supports the claim
the Ancient Egyptians used stories to explain the natural
phenomenon they observed.!
The Pharoahs: The Horus Kings
The god Horus was one of the most
important gods in Egyptian mythology. He
was also known as nekheny which means
“falcon.” Horus was first worshipped in the
city of Nekhen, or the city of the hawk. He
may have originated from another deity
that was worshipped in that location. He
became the patron of all the pharoahs
during dynastic times. Dynastic times is
the period of time during which the
Pharoahs ruled Egypt. This began with
King Menes in 3000 BC and ended about
300 A.D. with Cleopatra. He is
represented as a man with a falcon’s head.
Horus, in Egyptian myth, was the son of
the the gods Osiris and Isis. Osiris, was
killed by his brother Set, and became god
of the underworld, or Duat. He is also believed to have
transformed into the constellation known as Orion by the
Greeks. Horus battles his Uncle Set and frees his father
Osiris from the underworld. Osiris is said to have been
resurrected back to life with the help of his wife Isis and
the God Thoth.
The pharoahs of Egypt believed that Horus was the first
King of Egypt and the divine right of kingship was handed
down to them by the god Horus. They became the
physical embodiment of Horus or Horus in physical form,
and were known as the Horus Kings. During their reigns,
they worshipped Horus and built temples and monuments
out of respect and reverence. An example of this is the
Step Pyramid in Saqqara that was built for his King,
Pharoah Djoser in the 3rd dynasty. The pyramid is
dedicated to Horus and contains many inscriptions about
him that also appear in other pyramids as well.
Knowledge and Comprehension
Words to Know:
Horus:
Dynastic Times:
Osiris:
Duat:
Horus Kings:
Embodiment:
Horus King:
1. Who was Horus? Describe what you know about this
god?
2. Explain why Horus was important to Egypt?
Application, Analysis, Evaluation and Synthesis
3. How is the myth about Horus saving his father Osiris
connected to astronomy or the study of the stars. What
did they want to explain with this myth.
4. Explain one of the ways the Ancient Egyptians
worshipped their gods.
5. In your opinion, why was Horus represented by a
falcon. What are some possible reasons for this?
Ancient Egyptians and their Tombs
The Egyptians believed in an afterlife. The afterlife is the
belief that a person’s soul, or consciousness or identity,
continues to live after death. In order for the soul or the
ba to live, Egyptians believed that the body must be fed
and preserved. Mummification techniques were created to
protect the bodies of the dead.
During predynastic times and the
first first two dynasties in Egypt,
mastaba tombs were used to bury
the pharaohs and many important
Egyptians such as high officials
and royalty. Mastaba means
“house for eternity.” They, along
with the pyramid in Saqqara, were
all aligned or lined up with a
north-south orientation. This
alignment allowed these
structures to face North and allow
the observer to gaze into the sky
where the Big Dipper was. This
north-south alignment was critical
for the soul to enter the afterlife.
The Big Dipper was a group of
stars that rotated around the North
Pole. They were never seen to rise or set in the sky. They
were always present. The Egyptians believed that these
stars were eternal, and associated them with the afterlife.
The mastabas were rectangular-shaped, flat roofed
structures, that were built using stone such as limestone
or sun-dried, mud bricks that were fashioned out of clay
and reeds. Statues of the deceased Pharaohs were also
housed in this structure.
Built underneath the mastabas
were elaborate under-ground
systems of tunnels and
chambers. Serdabs or cellars
were built into the tunnels and
used to store grains, beer,
clothing and other items that
could be used in the afterlife.
These offerings or gifts were offered to the deceased
Pharoahs so that they may be fed in the afterlife.
King Djoser, in the 3rd dynasty,
had the first pyramid structure
known as the Step Pyramid of
stone built for him in Saqqara by
his high priest and architect,
Imhotep. The idea for this
structure was taken from the
layered mastaba of Zer which
included layers of bricks around its base. The pyramid of
Pharoah Djoser began as a traditional mastaba.
Subsequent smaller layers were added to the initial
mastaba to give the final structure 6 levels. The burial
chambers were were placed underneath the pyramid to
house the remains of the Pharaoh. This pyramid became
the “standard” for all other pyramids that were built after it.
Sources:
http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn174-pyramidprecision.html#.U2E8hq1dUtM
http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/badastronomy/
2012/08/20/planetary-alignment-pyramid-scheme/
#.U2FGZq1dUtM
Knowledge and Comprehension
Words to Know:
Afterlife:
Ba:
Mastaba:
Aligned:
Serdab:
Offerings:
Step Pyramid:
1. What is a mastaba?
2. What does it mean to align a temple or pyramid?
Application, Analysis, Evaluation and Synthesis
3. Explain, in your own words, how Egyptians aligned
their mastabas.
4. In what ways did the Egyptians take care of the body of
the deceased Pharaoh?
5. Why was it important to preserve the body of the
Pharoah?
6. How was Pharaoh Djoser’s pyramid built? Why is this
pyramid important?
The Sun and the Gods
The sun has been described by almost
every culture as the giver of life. Many
early agricultural societies and
civilizations that settled in one location
and based their livelihoods and their
source of nourishment on the crops
they grew, worshipped sun deities or
gods. The ancient Egyptians
understood that the sun provided the
light and warmth that enabled their
crops to grow. These crops, in turn,
played a very important role in
providing sustenance for them. They
saw the sun as the ruler of all life created
on Earth.
Out of deep respect and reverence for
the sun, they deified the it, transforming
it into the god Ra. They envisioned this
powerful god traveling across the sky everyday in a barge
or boat made of reeds during the day. In the night, he was
believed to ride an underground channel, from the west to
the east, so he could rise in the East in the morning.
,
The sun god was worshipped by the Egyptians at the city
of Iunu or “the place of pillars.” The Greeks called this
place Heliopolis or “city of the sun.” The god Horus, the
son of Osiris, was also worshipped as a sun god. The
astronomer-priests of Heliopolis called the “Followers of
Horus” tracked and recorded the movements of the sun at
the Temple of Heliopolis. These priests, which the famous
architect and scribe Imhotep was a member of, were said
to have ruled Egypt for 13,000 years in its prehistory.
They were said to have preserved and transmitted the
traditions and knowledge of Egypt to the Pharoahs starting
in 3000 B.C. These priests were scholars or experts in
astronomy, geometry, and writing. They taught some of
the most notable historical Greek figures astronomy, math,
and philosophy at the Temple of Heliopolis. some of the
famous Greek scholars and philosophers included
Pythagoras and Plato studied there.
Knowledge and Comprehension
Words to Know:
Deities:
Ra:
Heliopolis:
Followers of Horus:
Scholars:
1. What is a deity?
2. What did the ancient peoples believe about the sun?
Application, Analysis, Evaluation and Synthesis
3. Explain why the sun became a God.
4. The myth about the God Ra traveling across the sky on
a boat made of reeds explains which astronomical
event?
5. Who were the Followers of Horus and why were they
important in Egyptian history?