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GCSE PHYSICAL EDUCATION Revision Booklet Welshpool High School Contents Page Contents Page Section A: Factors affecting performance, participation and provision in sporting and health activities 1. Performance Page No a) b) c) d) e) f) Reasons for exercise – health and fitness Fitness components Evaluation of fitness Principles of training Methods of training Application of training 21 7 9 13 14 15 2. Participation and Provision a) b) c) d) e) Factors affecting participation Provision Sponsorship Media Deviance in Sport e.g. Drugs 16 17 19 19 20 Section B: The physical, psychological, tactical and technical influences on health, fitness and well-being, lifestyle choices and performance 3. Physical Influences a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) Health - fitness - exercise - lifestyle choices Energy Systems Skeletal System Muscular System Cardiovascular System Respiratory System Short term and long term benefits of exercise Minimising risk Nutrition 21 23 26 29 33 34 35 38 39 4. Psychological Influences a) Motivation b) Adherence c) Goal setting 43 44 45 5. Technical and Tactical Influences a) b) c) d) e) f) g) Skill The learning process Information processing system Feedback Guidance Practice Technological Developments 47 49 50 51 52 52 54 2 Exam Tips Look through the whole paper in the first 5 mins, make sure you check the back page/last question After the video questions, look through the paper, you might want to answer the questions you know or 6 mark questions first when you are fresh Read the question carefully, underline/highlight key words Always look at the number of marks available, read over your answers, have you got enough points for the number of marks available Always plan your 6 mark answers – spider diagram, bullet point, table Layout of the Paper Section A (50 marks) Q1 and 2 – Video Questions (32) Before the video is shown you will have 5 minutes to read through the questions, you can not write in this 5 minutes, but use the time wisely. You will be shown two video clips and they will each be shown three times. You will be asked questions on the following topics: Definitions of components of fitness – sporting example Methods of training Fitness testing – procedures and monitoring fitness MAKE SURE YOU GO INTO THE EXAM KNOWING EVERY DEFINITION FOR THE COMPONENTS OF FITNESS – YOU KNOW THERE IS ALWAYS QUESTIONS ON THESE AREAS You will be asked to explain/describe how a component of fitness is used in the DVD, this is normally a 2 mark question. To get full marks, first you need to give the definition and then explain where it is used in the video clip 3 Q3 – Participation and provision (18) There will be 2 extended writing questions – always plan your answer to make sure you have got 6 points, you can use the following methods to plan: Table ‘Little has been done in recent years to increase participation In sporting activity.’ Discuss this statement. For Tradition and culture, still male dominated sports Access e.g. still need to travel distances to facilities living in a rural area The nation is still unhealthy, big obesity problem Disabilities e.g. less clubs available Finance - some sports still expensive e.g. golf Against Government initiatives e.g. 5x60 Campaigns to fight racism e.g. Show racism the red card Gender e.g. womens only gym and swim sessions Events like the Olympics – role models School lessons – National Curriculum Spider diagram ‘Participation in sport and exercise is influenced by a number of factors.’ Discuss. Body Image Media/role models Access to facilites Olympics/e vents Parents Participation Peer group/friends Health Opportunities Teachers/ coaches 4 (6) Bullet Points Discuss the risks associated with a sedentary lifestyle. (6) Health issues Obesity Joints Blood pressure High cholesterol Heart disease/problems Stress reduction Well being o Physical o Social o Mental Section B (50 marks) This section will cover the following topics: Physical Influences Psychological influences Technical and Tactical Influences Read the questions carefully, if it is asking you to tick two boxes make sure you tick two etc. There will be two to three 6 mark questions again in this section. See above section on how to plan these effectively. 5 Some key terms used in examination questions Account for Explain the process or reason for something being the way it is. Analyse Explore the main ideas of the subject; show why they are important and how they are related. Assess To judge or decide the amount, value, quality or importance of something. Comment on Discuss the subject, explain it, give an opinion on it. Compare Show similarities and/or differences. Conclude Decide after reasoning. Contrast Show the differences. Define Give the meaning of. Describe Give a detailed account of. Discuss Explore the subject by looking at is advantages and disadvantages and arrive at a conclusion. Evaluate Give an opinion after assessed different points of view. Explain Describe giving reasons and causes. Give reasons for Explain how and why something is that way. Identify Recognise something. Illustrate Show by explaining and given examples. Indicate Point out, make something known Justify Give good reasons for offering a conclusion. List An item-by-item record. Outline Concentrate on the main bits of the topic. Summarise Give the main points of an idea or argument. 6 Section A Factors affecting exercise, performance, health, well-being and lifestyle choices 1. Performance - Components of Fitness Components of fitness are split into Health and Skill related fitness – REMEMBER BEEFS AND BSPARC!!!! Muscular trength HEALTH RELATED ndurance Cardiovascular lexibility ndurance ody Composition peed oordination SKILL RELATED eaction Time ower gility 7 8 Coordination Reaction Time Agility Power Speed Balance Strength Flexibility Endurance Cardiovascular Endurance Local Muscular Body Composition Component Ruler drop test Alternate hand throw The time it takes to respond to a stimulus The ability to use two or more body parts together Tennis Starting gun 100m Winger in Rugby Illinois agility test The ability to change direction at speed Athletics e.g. High Jump Vertical Jump Standing Long Jump The ability to use strength and speed Power = Strength x Speed 100m Beam in Gymnastics g Weightliftin Gymnastics Marathon Cycling Sporting Example Sumo 30/50m sprint Stork Stand Test 1 rep max/ Handgrip dynamometer Sit up bleep test Press up test Multistage fitness test 12 min cooper run Sit and Reach Skinfold test Fitness Test The fastest time to complete the test The ability to maintain stability/equilibrium The ability to overcome a resistance The range of movement around a joint The ability of the body to sustain exercise The ability of a specific muscle of group of muscles to sustain exercise The body make up, bone, muscle, fat Definition SAQ SAQ SAQ Fartlek Training Training Plyometric Interval Training Mobility training Weight Training Training Mobility/Flexibili ty training e.g. PNF Continuous Weight Training Method of Training Evaluation of Health and Fitness Fitness Testing Motivate Strenths and Weaknesses Compare Why Test Fitness Basline Improvement Current State When listing test procedures for fitness tests always remember to include the following: Warm Up Equipment needed Procedures – including measurements etc. Record and compare results to national averages Monitoring exercise Diary keeping Pedometers Calorie counting Heart rate monitors Health screening/questionnaires Blood pressure Validity make sure it tests what you are supposed to be testing e.g. multi stage fitness test is valid test for endurance. Can compare to recognised results table. Reliability results are consistent, can be retested. Correct procedures carried out. 9 Test Name: 12 minute Cooper Run Component: Cardiovascular Endurance Equipment: Running track, stop watch Procedures: 1. Warm up 2. Run around a track as many times as you can in 12 minutes 3. Record distance and compare results to national averages Test Name: Multistage fitness test Component: Cardiovascular Endurance Equipment: Multistage fitness test CD and CD player, cones Procedures: 1. Warm up 2. Mark out a 20m area 3. Start the CD 4. Run in time with the beep, if the athlete fails to reach the end of the shuttle before the beep twice they have to withdraw from the test 5. Record level and compare results to national averages Test Name: Sit Up test Component: Muscular Endurance Equipment: Mat, stopwatch Procedures: 1. Warm up 2. Lie flat on mat with knees bent, feet flat on floor and hands by their ears. Assistant holds athletes feet on the ground. 3. On the command ‘GO’ start the stopwatch. Perform as many sit ups in 30 seconds as possible. 4. Record number of sit ups and compare results to national averages Test Name: Press Up Test Component: Muscular Endurance Equipment: Mat, stopwatch Procedures: 1. Warm up 2. Lie on the ground, place hands by the shoulders and straighten the arms. Lower the body until the elbow reaches 90° and then extend arms back to start position 3. On the command ‘GO’ start the stopwatch. Perform as many press ups in 30 seconds as possible. 4. Record and compare results to national averages Test Name: Sit and Reach Test Component: Flexibility Equipment: Sit and reach box or bench and metre ruler Procedures: 1. Warm up 2. Remove shoes and place feet flat on sit and reach box. Place hands on top of each other, slowly reach forward as far as possible and hold stretch for two seconds. 3. Record distance reached by finger tips, record average of three attempts and compare results to national averages Test Name: Handgrip Dynamometer Test Component: Strength Equipment: Grip dynamometer Procedures: 1. Using the dominant hand, apply as much grip pressure as possible on the dynamometer. 2. Record the maximum reading in kg 3. Repeat the test three times 4. Record the highest value and compare results to national averages 10 Test Name: Standing Stork Test Component: Balance Equipment: Stopwatch Procedures: 1. Warm up 2. Lift the right leg and place the sole of the right foot against the side of the left leg. On the command ‘GO’ start the stopwatch and the athlete raises the heel of the left foot to stand on their toes. Hold the position for as long as possible, record time and then change legs. 3. Record time and compare results to national averages Test Name: 30m sprint Component: Speed Equipment: Flat surface, measuring tape, stopwatch Procedures: 1. Warm up 2. Mark out a 30m straight 3. Athlete starts in their own time, stopwatch starts when foot strikes starting line, and finishes when torso crosses the finishing line 4. Record time and compare results to national averages Test Name: Standing Long Jump Test Component: Power Equipment: Mat, tape measure Procedures: 1. Warm up 2. Place feet behind line, crouch down and using arms and legs jump as far as possible, landing with both feet. 3. Measure distance from back of foot. 4. Record distance and compare results to national averages Test Name: Vertical Jump Test Component: Power Equipment: Vertical Jump Board Procedures: 1. Warm up 2. Athlete stands side onto wall. Reach up as far as possible and adjust vertical jump board 3. Mark fingers with chalk, jump as high as possible and mark the board with the tips of fingers 4. Record distance jumped and compare results to national averages Test Name: Illinois Agility Test Component: Agility Equipment: Non-slip surface, 8 cones, stopwatch Procedures: 1. Warm up 2. Set up course as detailed in the diagram 3. Lie face down on the floor at the start 4. On the command of ‘Go’ start the stopwatch, the athlete jumps to their feet and completes the course 5. Record time and compare results to national averages Test Name: Ruler Drop Test Component: Reaction Time Equipment: Metre ruler Procedures: 1. Assistant holds the ruler at zero between the outstretched index finger and thumb of athletes dominant hand 2. Assistant drops ruler, and athlete catches the ruler as quick as possible. 3. Record the distance between the bottom of the ruler and the top of the athletes thumb where ruler has been caught 4. Record and compare results to national averages 11 Test Name: Alternate hand throw test Component: Coordination Equipment: Tennis ball, stopwatch Procedures: 1. Warm up 2. Athlete stands two metres away from wall 3. On the command of ‘Go’ start the stopwatch, the athlete throws a tennis ball with their right hand and catch with the left, then throw with the left hand and catch with the right. Continue this for 30 seconds. 4. Record number of catches and compare to national averages 12 Health and Fitness Exercise Programmes Health Related Programme Fitness Related Programme Lower intensity Shorter duration Higher intensity Longer duration Principles of Training pecificity rogression verload (frequency, intensity, time, type – FITT) eversibility edium You need to be able to understand and apply these principles when developing a health or fitness programme. You should be able to meet the needs of the individual by thinking about: Intensity Duration Type of exercise e.g. swimming when returning from injury Specificity Training must be matched to the needs of the sporting activity to improve fitness in the body parts the sport uses Progression Start slowly and gradually increase the amount of exercise and keep overloading, but don’t progress too quickly or you risk injury. Overload (FITT) Fitness can only be improved by training more than you normally do FITT - frequency, intensity, time, type Reversibility Any adaptations that take place as a result of training will be reversed when you stop training Tedium/Variance Keep the training varied to maintain interest and stop boredom When planning a training programme, use the FITT principles to add in the detail: Frequency – decide how often to train Intensity – choose how hard to train Time – decide how long to train Type – decide which methods of training to use 13 Methods of Training Continuous Training Fartlek Continuous Interval Training Circuit Weight Interval Plyometric Mobility Training Static Dynamic Active PNF Altitude Training You need to be able to do the following: Describe how methods of training can develop components of fitness What type of exercises are involved in each method of training The benefits of training to the individual M.O.T Description Fartlek training 'Speed play' training involves varying your times, distances, speed and the type of terrain over which you run, walk, cycle or ski. It improves aerobic and anaerobic fitness. Continuous training Involves working for a sustained period of time without rest. Low to medium intensity keeping the heart rate constant. It improves cardio-vascular fitness. Circuit training Involves performing a series of exercises in a special order called a circuit. Each activity takes place at a 'station'. It can be designed to improve speed, agility, coordination, balance and muscular endurance. Weight training Uses weights to provide resistance to the muscles. It improves muscular strength (high weight, low reps), muscular endurance (low weight, high reps, many sets) and power (medium weight and reps performed quickly). Interval training Involves alternating between periods of hard exercise and rest. It can involve reps and sets. It improves speed and muscular endurance. Plyometric training Eccentric muscular contractions, jumping over obstacles, landing and rebounding. Develops power. Mobility training Involves mobility/flexibility exercises that increase range of motion. Can help reduce risk of injury. This method is normally found in the warm up. PNF stretching moves joints to their maximum range, using a resistance (partner). Altitude training Is aerobic training high above sea level, where oxygen levels are lower. It is used to increase aerobic fitness quickly. SAQ Speed, Agility and Quickness. Involves activities like quick feet through ladders. 14 Application of Training Training Session Warm up Skill development Small sided game Cool down Reasons for Warming Up: • Gradually increase heart rate, increase blood supply to muscles • Gradually increase body temperature • Reduce the risk of injury • Move muscles and joints in ways that will be used in activity • Introduce skills to be used in competition • Increase intensity • Mentally prepare the performer Reasons for Cooling Down: • Gradually decrease body temperature • Remove waste from body • Allow muscles to relax • Prevent muscle soreness (DOMS – delayed onset muscle soreness Training Cycle (Periodisation) Training consists of three parts: Sport: When planning a training programme you need to peak at specific times of the year. Therefore the programme will change in intensity and activity PRE - SEASON Specific fitness for activity or sport. Skill development PEAK SEASON Skill and tactics maintenance CLOSE SEASON Rest, level of general and basic fitness. Area of weakness 15 Participation and Provision Participation Factors that affect my participation in sport/physical activity – positive or negative Family Initiatives e.g. 5x60 Friends Coaching Social Race School Me Facilities Age Transport Gender Finance Other influences might include: Physical education programme National curriculum Extra curricular sport e.g. 5x60 initiative Risks associated with sedentary lifestyle e.g. heart attack, diabetes Access – disabled Media coverage – role models, events e.g. Olympics Deviance e.g. drug taking to improve performance YOU NEED TO BE ABLE TO PROVIDE EXAMPLES FOR EACH OF THESE, MAKE SURE YOU CAN EXPLAIN EXAMPLES. 16 Provision – the action of providing or supplying something 1. Target groups – women, OAPs, social-economic groups, youth, disabled 2. Government policies – sports council, mass participation, elite performance, health, education etc. 3. Funding – different forms of grants, TV rights, sponsorship, subs etc. Target Groups Women Barriers facing women – access, lack of time, childcare, money, body image, lack of confidence, lack of role models, lack of media coverage. Initiatives – Sport Wales – Climbing Higher/Creating an Active Wales Equal opportunities – male dominated sports are being broken down, women how box in the Olympics, womens football world cup, womens rugby and cricket. Increase media coverage – e.g. Wimbledon, Olympics, Womens Football World Cup Role Models – Jessica Ennis Hill, Rebecca Adlington, Ellie Symmonds, Nicole Adams Creches available in some sports centres Women only gym/swim sessions Disabled National Governing bodies are actively providing more opportunities Integrated/adapted sports now available e.g. blind football, wheelchair basketball Disability sports are now of a higher profile e.g. Paralympics Adapted equipment e.g. bell balls for partially sighted Adapted rules OAPs Free swim for over 60s Walking football for over 50s Mentro Allan – encouraging the use of the natural environment, walking etc Social economic groups Street Games – takes sports clubs to the doorstep in disadvantaged communities 17 Race Initiatives: Show racism the red card ‘Kick it out’ – let’s kick racism out of football Incidents of racism: Luis Suarez was given an 8 match ban and a £40,000 fine after racially abusing Manchester United’s Evra. In Euro 2012 Croatian Football Federation was fined £65,000 after fans directed racial abuse at Italian striker Mario Balotelli Funding How sports clubs can be funded Donations Fund raising Sales of merchandise/kit Sponsorship Grants TV rights Entrance fees Membership fees Other types of funding available: Sports Wales – the sports council fund Governing bodies, Government initiatives like Climbing higher, 5x60 and Dragon Sport National Lottery funding – funded our Astro in Welshpool Types of grants available: Community Chest – sports clubs can apply for up to £1500 to help fund coaching, equipment etc. Powys FANS scheme – for athletes representing their region, they can have free access to the gym Elite Cymru/Talent Cymru – support for aspiring athletes 18 Sponsorship Why do businesses sponsor sport? Advertising Media Publicity Increased Sales How does the sport benefit? Money/funding Kit Facilities Equipment Coaching Publicity Media Coverage Positive Promotes sport Entertainment Creates role models Encourages participation Creates sponsorship Educates people Informative – fixtures – news – results Fundraises – TV rights Minority sports made more popular TV technology – repeats – red button Performance analysis Negative Sportspeople want to win at all costs Media pressure on teams, players Loss of privacy TV influences change the sport e.g. cricket Over sensationalistic – just to entertain Live attendance can drop Reasons for lack of Women Sport in the media Tradition that men play sport, watch sport, women stay at home History Men more interested in sport Men watch more sport Women’s sport gets less sponsorship Fewer female role models 19 Recent changes have meant that: Women have equal coverage in some events e.g. Olympics, Wimbledon More events being televised e.g. Womens Football World Cup More female role models e.g. Jessica Ennis Hill Deviance in Sport e.g. Drugs Performance enhancing drugs should be legalised Would make it more fair as athletes are already competing against athletes that take drugs If medically supervised would make it safer Make the competition more equal Can help athletes cope with pressure High level of performance Some drugs cannot be detected Performance enhancing drugs should not be legalised Health implications, death Creates negative role models Bad message to give to children Morally wrong 20 Section B The physical, psychological, tactical and technical influences on health, fitness and wellbeing, lifestyle choices and performance Physical Influences Health and Physical Fitness Health Fitness The complete state of physical, social and mental well-being, not merely the absence of disease The ability to meet the demands of the environment Exercise A form of leisure-time physical activity that is usually performed on a repeated basis over an extended period of time (exercise training) with a specific external objective such as the improvement of fitness, physical performance or health. The relationship between health, fitness and exercise: A person cannot be seen to be healthy unless they are physically fit. This means EXERCISE provides the link and is crucial to a person’s health. A person can be FIT but not HEALTHY. The social and mental aspects must be developed alongside the physical REASONS FOR EXERCISE: Physical Losing weight Improved body shape/image Improved posture/muscle tone Look good/feel good Bone strengthening Improved flexibility Cardiovascular improvement Less prone to injury or disease Increase life expectancy Mental Social Meeting people and making new friends Increased confidence Teamwork and cooperation development Challenge Fulfilment Increase of self worth Mix with people of similar interests Promotes the ‘feel-good’ factor Can provide excitement Give enjoyment Can relieve stress, tension and aggression Can heighten emotions/exhilaration Develop sense of being part of something Provide opportunity for success Life problems can be forgotten Provides new challenges Satisfaction of own performance 21 The importance of an active, healthy lifestyle Sedentary lifestyle inactive lifestyle, insufficient exercise – can lead to the following: Cardiovascular diseases Hypertension High Cholesterol levels Angina Atherosclerosis Thrombosis Certain cancers Obesity Anxiety related disorders Back pain Back pain and osteoporosis Type 2 diabetes Adherence you need to be aware of strategies to ensure people stick to a healthy lifestyle. See section on adherence. 22 Energy Systems Aerobic respiration – means respiration ‘with oxygen’. When exercise is not too fast and at a constant, steady rate, the heart can keep the muscles fully supplied with oxygen. Anaerobic respiration – means respiration ‘without oxygen’. If the exercise is fast or intense and done in short bursts, the heart cannot supply oxygen to the muscles as fast as the cells are using it. There are 3 sources (energy systems) that the body can use: 1.ATP/ PC or CP System Anaerobic Pathway 2. Lactic Acid System 3. Aerobic System Aerobic Pathway Characteristics of the 3 energy systems: Energy System Aerobic/ Anaerobic Fuel/ Energy Source Byproduct Exercise intensity Duration ATP/ PC Anaerobic ATP/ PC Creatine High (Flat Out) 10 – 15 Seconds Sprinting, athletic field events, weightlifting. Small muscular stores of ATP and PC are exhausted quickly leading to a rapid decline in immediate energy. Lactic Acid Anaerobic Glycogen Glucose Pyruvic Acid/ Lactic Acid High Intensity Up to 3 minutes 400m 800m Racket sports. Lactic acid is a by-product and can cause rapid fatigue. Aerobic Aerobic Fat/ glucose mixture Water/ CO2 Low 3 minutes onwards Long distance running/ cycling. This system is limited by availability of O2 Sporting Examples NOTES The source of energy used will depend on: 1. Type of physical activity 2. Intensity of physical activity 3.Duration of physical activity 23 MAXIMUM HEART RATE (MHR) MHR = 220 – AGE e.g. a 15 year old boy 220 – 15 = 205 TRAINING ZONES To improve aerobic fitness the exercise should be maintained between 60 and 80% of the MHR To improve anaerobic training you need to work above 80% TRAINING THRESHOLDS Aerobic threshold is the level of exercise where the intensity is sufficient to produce aerobic training effects – 60% Anaerobic threshold is the point where the anaerobic training effects come into play – 80% A – Maximum Heart Rate B – Anaerobic Training Zone – 80% + C – Anaerobic Training Threshold – 80% D – Aerobic Training Zone – 60 – 80% E – Aerobic Training Threshold – 60% F – No improvement zone G – Resting Heart Rate What information can Heart Rate tell you? B is the fittest athlete because: • • • • 24 Lower resting heart rate Quicker recovery rate Heart rate increases more steadily Lower heart rate reached at peak Energy System Key Terms VO2 Max The maximum amount of oxygen that the body can consume and utilise in one minute O2 Debt The need for extra Oxygen after strenuous exercise. The body pays off this O2 debt by gulping air into the lungs and panting. 25 Skeletal System The functions of the skeletal system are: • Providing SUPPORT for the movement taking place. • PROTECTING vital organs against impact and injury. • Producing RED BLOOD CELLS which help carry O2 (Oxygen) for exercise. • Providing points for MUSCULAR ATTACHMENT – ORIGIN/ INSERTION. • Allowing MOVEMENT through the JOINT and LEVER systems. Joints – Joints are the place where 2 bones meet, they enable the body to move. There are three classifications of joints: 1. Immovable Joints – fixed joints – no movement possible e.g. Skull and Pelvis 2. Slightly movable joints e.g. vertebrae, ribs and sternum 3. Freely movable joints/synovial joints – most of the joints in our body, greatest range of movement e.g. knee, elbow, shoulder A synovial joint: Tendon (this joins muscle to bone) Muscle Patella (kneecap) Femur Synovial fluid (oils or lubricates the joint helping it to move more easily) Cartilage (smooth, slippery, reduces friction, helps to reduce shock) Ligament (tough strip of tissue joining bone to bone) Tibia Tendons – attach muscle to bone Ligaments – Attach bone to bone Cartilage – Protects the bone, shock absorber 26 There are six types of joint: TYPE OF JOINT Ball and socket Hinge Pivot Condyloid Saddle Gliding BODY LOCATION TYPES OF MOVEMENT Hip Shoulder Flexion/ extension, rotation, abduction, adduction Elbow Knee Neck Wrist Ankle Thumb Hands Feet Flexion/ extension Rotation Flexion/ extension, abduction, adduction Flexion/ extension, abduction, adduction Gliding movements – where 2 bones with flat surfaces slide on each other 27 Types of Movement: Type of Movement Movement Sporting Example Bicep Curl FLEXION Reducing the angle at the joint (bending) Throwing a dart EXTENSION Increasing the angle at a joint (straightening) ROTATION Breathing in Swimming Butterfly A circular movement made by a joint. ABDUCTION Goal keeper The sideways movement at the hip and shoulder joints away from the body ADDUCTION Rings in gymnastics The movement at the hip or shoulder joints towards the body CIRCUMDUCTION A circular movement, combining flexion, extension, abduction and adduction. 28 Bowling in cricket Muscular System Types of muscles and functions of the muscular system are: Muscles help with posture. Regular exercise will tone muscles and help improve posture. This reduces strain on the other parts of the body Voluntary muscles – make the body move. They are attached to the skeleton and can be controlled Involuntary muscles – work our internal organs. Outside of our control e.g. the cardiac muscle makes up the heart and never tires. Muscles in action: Muscles can PULL by contraction, they cannot push. Muscles always work in pairs or groups, they are called antagonistic pairs. When one muscle contracts, another will relax The muscle that contracts (brings the bones together) is called the agonist or prime mover The opposite muscle that relaxes is the antagonist. Origin Triceps are relaxing The ANTAGONIST Bicep is contracting The AGONIST or PRIME MOVER Insertion Muscles are have two ends and are attached to bones by TENDONS. 1. The end that attaches to the fixed bone is called the ORIGIN. 2. The other end is called the INSERTION is attached to the moving bone 29 TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION Muscles contract to produce movement. The contractions can produce a range of movements: ISOTONIC ISOMETRIC Muscle contracts to cause movement Concentric contraction Muscle shortens as it contracts Ends of muscle move closer together Muscle remains the same length Eccentric contraction No movement as a result Muscle lengthens but is still under tension e.g. the plank Ends of muscle move further apart e.g. bicep curl Key Terms The strength of muscles can be increased through training. Strength training makes muscles grow thicker, allowing them to contract with more force Hypertrophy Atrophy When muscles increase in size When muscles waste away (wither) 30 Muscle Fibres There are 2 main types of muscles fibres: 1) Slow twitch 2) Fast twitch Bicep muscle Fast Twitch (White) Slow Twitch (Red) The type of muscle fibre can often determine performance in different physical activities FAST TWITCH SLOW TWITCH SIZE LARGE SMALL COLOUR WHITE RED SPEED OF CONTRACTION QUICK SLOW FORCE GENERATED LARGE SMALL QUICK SLOW (Work without O2 – anaerobically) (Good O2 supply) POWER, STRENGTH, EXPLOSIVE EVENTS e.g. 100m, Shot put CV ENDURANCE ACTIVITIES e.g. Marathon FATIGUE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 31 Muscles and Joints as Levers The lever system in the body is formed wherever a muscle is attached to a bone. The muscles use the bones as the levers against which they work to cause movement. FUNCTIONS OF A LEVER Generates more force to move larger weights Produces a greater range of movement Increases speed at which the body moves All levers have the same characteristic: P/F Pivot or Fulcrum The point of movement e.g. joints L/R Load or Resistance Body weight or external weight E Effort Muscle 3rd Class Lever System In the 3rd class lever, the effort E is between the fulcrum F and the load L. E F L Effort Fulcrum Load/resistance F Advantages of the 3rd class lever are: Can gain speed of movement of the load The longer the lever, the greater the force at the end e.g. tennis racket, golf club 32 Cardio-vascular System HEART BLOOD BLOOD VESSEL Cardiovascular System Functions: Supply and transport oxygen to the body Body temperature control – moves your blood nearer the skin to cool the body quicker Protection from disease Key Terms: Heart Rate – the number of times the heart beats in one minute Stroke Volume – the amount of blood forced out of the heart per beat Cardiac Output – the amount of blood pumped out of the heart in one minute Cardiac Output Q = Heart Rate × Stroke Volume CO = HR × SV Blood Pressure - the force of blood against the blood vessels walls. The average blood pressure reading is 120/80. Factors which can affect blood pressure are: Age, sex, exercise intensity, stress, circulatory system, fitness Ways in which blood pressure can be reduced: Regular exercise, sensible diet, avoid stress, medication Vascular Shunt – the re-distribution of blood around the body to increase supply of oxygen to your muscles Vasodilation – The widening of the capillaries, causing the skin to redden and heat to be radiated from the skin Vasoconstriction – capillaries become narrower, reducing heat loss. Muscles begin to shiver, small contractions provide heat. Sweating – sweat evaporates from the skins surface, cooling the body down 33 Cardio-respiratory system The process of breathing is called Respiration Function: Supplies oxygen to enable energy to be released Removes carbon dioxide from the body Key Terms: Respiratory rate – How many breaths taken in one minutes Tidal volume – Amount of air taken in or out with each breath Vital capacity – The maximum amount of air that can be breathed out after breathing in as deeply as you can Residual volume – the lungs are never completely empty, the air that is left in the lungs after breathing out Total lung capacity – Vital capacity + Residual volume Maximum aerobic capacity (VO2 max) – the maximum amount of oxygen taken in, transported and used in one minute. It is a predictor of aerobic fitness, the fitter athlete will be able to make much greater use of oxygen that is inhaled 34 Effects of Exercise Short Term effects: Stroke Volume Increases – Output per heartbeat Cardiac output increases – Output per Minute. Cardio-Vascular Effects Blood flow is faster and redistributed to working muscles. Vasodilation and vasoconstriction Heart rate increases Temperature control: Sweating Skin Reddening (vasodilation) Minute volume increases – volume of air breathed in and out in one minute Respiratory rate increases Cardio - Respiratory Effects Gaseous exchange increases -more O2 is released into the muscles and more CO2 is removed. Breathing gets deeper 35 Increased muscle contraction Muscles use more oxygen Muscular / skeletal Effects Muscles might start to ache Lactic acid is created 36 Long term effects of exercise: Heart becomes stronger and larger - contracts with greater force Increased stroke Volume – pumps less times Lower resting heart rate Increases cardiac output Cardio-Vascular Effects Increase in red blood cells more 02 transported Arteries larger and more Elastic – blood pressure reduced Recovery rate improves Increased number of capillaries Greater tolerance to Lactic acid Breathing becomes more efficient Respiratory muscles become stronger – diaphragm and intercostal muscles More O2 less fatigue Cardio - Respiratory Effects Improved lung capacity Tidal volume and Vital capacity increases Number of alveoli increases more efficient gaseous exchange Muscles hypertrophy increase in size More O2 into the bloodstream and more CO2 out. Muscles become stronger Cartilage thickens Muscle strength and endurance increase Stronger tendons/ ligaments VO2 increases Muscular / skeletal Effects Training thresholds change as fitness improves Better muscle tone Flexibility at joints increases Joints become more stable Muscle fibres increase in size 37 Bone width and density increases Minimising risk The following need to be carried out to create a safe environment for adopting an active, healthy lifestyle. Appropriate and specific warm up/cool down Specific rules, laws, codes of conduct, safety procedures e.g. shin pads, gum shield Appropriate levels of ability/participation Current skills/techniques – specific to activity e,g. be able to safely tackle in rugby Using equipment correctly Using appropriate and specific equipment to use/wear How to gather, use and respond to information about the environment Good health and physical fitness 38 Fuel for Exercise: People exercise to: foster a healthy lifestyle improve fitness and/or sporting performance Basal metabolic rate (BMR) - The amount of energy needed just to keep you alive. Balanced diet – is based around good foods, eating 5 vegetables/fruits per day. A balanced diet should consist of 7 components Carbohydrates Water Fats Protein BALANCED DIET Fibre Vitamins Minerals Protein 15% Fats 30% - 25% Carbohydrates 55% - 60% 39 Component CARBOHYDRATES FATS PROTEINS WATER Importance to Health and Sport Main source of energy Broken down into glucose and stored as glycogen Immediate energy source Slow release energy when there is a lack of carbohydrates Fats are used during Aerobic work Extra fat is stored in the body This can lead to obesity and high cholesterol levels Used as an energy source when carbohydrates and fat stores have been used up Proteins are needed for the repair and growth of body tissues Helps body maintain a constant temperature during exercise Sweat is evaporated from the skin to cool body down The more water than is lost, it can lead to dehydration and heatstroke Performance is seriously affected by water loss . VITAMINS Only small amounts needed Help resist infections Help with growth and repair of muscle tissue MINERALS Found in a variety of food e.g. calcium in milk, which can strengthen bones FIBRE Fibre keeps the digestive system working correctly Helps with food absorption Makes you feel full so you eat less 40 Energy Balance ENERGY BALANCE Energy in (eating) = = Energy in Energy out (physical activity) > Energy used WEIGHT GAINED Energy in < Energy used WEIGHT LOST There is a direct link between HEALTH, FITNESS, and EXERCISE. • OBESE – normally 20% over the Food Standards Agency guide of weight for height. • Health risks – Heart disease, cancer, diabetes, osteoarthritis and other problems are likely if obese. • UNDER WEIGHT – ANOREXIA NERVOSA – where people do not eat as the see themselves as fat – leads to excessive weight loss. • BULIMIA – people eat a lot but the vomit – weight loss which needs addressing immediately. 41 BODY TYPE – BODY SHAPE – BODY COMPOSITION - Determine how effective you are at a physical activity There are 3 SOMATOTYPES: MESOMORPH ENDOMORPH ECTOMORPH Each of the somatotypes can be changed by DIET, EXERCISE and TRAINING ENDOMORPH ECTOMORPH MESOMORPH Wedge-shaped body Muscled arms and legs Very little body fat Wide shoulders/narrow hips Pear shaped body Lots of fat Wide shoulders and hips Little muscle Very thin and lean Long arms/legs Little fat Narrow shoulders/hips MESOMORPH ENDOMORPH ECTOMORPH Power Weight Endurance Strength Limited movement Height Contact Type of activity e.g. Sumo Type of activity e.g. High Jump Type of activity e.g. Rugby 42 Psychological Influences Motivation MOTIVATION 1. What makes a person act 2. The amount of enthusiasm and determination a person has for physical activity 3. A combination of the drive within us to achieve goals and the outside factors which affect it Motivation is responsible for: 1. 2. 3. 4. The selection and preference for activity The persistence at the activity The intensity and effort put into the performance How well or how badly a person will perform There are two types of motivation: Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation Inner drive to achieve success Pride and satisfaction of completing a task Determined to achieve personal goals Take part in physical activity for dun, enjoyment, joy and satisfaction Comes from a source outside of the performer e.g. Trophies, money, certificates, awards Praise, recognition, achievements 43 Adherence Reasons for people not sticking to a training programme include: Lack of time, expense, inconvenience, exercise intensity, poor instruction, embarrassment and physical discomfort, inadequate support and a loss of interest. There are many strategies which can be used to develop the habit of exercise. These are called adherence strategies. Set realistic, measurable goals (performance + outcome) Keep a diary Use electronic monitoring Be committed to the cause Set goals which are achievable Establish a time frame Short and snappy training ADHERENCE STRATEGIES Set a routine Use fitness testing Manage time Make a plan Re-evaluate plans if not achievable Use utilitarian exercising Share goals Train to music Use competition Have back up plans Set intensity and duration of exercise to suit purpose Convenience - fitting in exercise Location gym/ home Establish social support/ friends/ family Monitor progress (feedback assistance and motivation) Choose an activity you like Learn a new activity – presents a challenge Begin with easy tasks Have fun Correct facilities affordable Safe facilities 44 Goal Setting Goal setting Is a good way of staying motivated. Why set goals? Achieve more (working harder) Determine exactly what is to be achieved Gain direction (sign posting) Gain confidence Improve performance BY SETTING GOALS YOU CAN Improve quality of training Feel in control Be less anxious Evaluate your performance Increase pride and satisfaction in your performance Focus your attention Increase motivation to achieve Check progress against targets Be prepared mentally for performing Goals can be short or long term. The ultimate objective (The Long Term Goal) is very important. However the key to success is the day to day Short Term Goals. They can provide a focus for training and help achieve their long term goal. Goals can be Performance or Outcome Goals Performance Goals focus on the work that it takes to achieve a particular result e.g. Improving technique Outcome Goals focus on the result of the work e.g. improving their time 45 Goal Setting – SMART: S. M. SPECIFIC MEASUREABLE A. AGREED / ACCEPTED R. T. REALISTIC TIME-PHASED Goals should be as specific as possible regarding what you want to achieve – Focusing attention e.g. Run 5 km under 20 minutes at the end of a 12 week training programme You need to be able to tell when you have reached a goal – they should assess PROGRESS against a standard and when to set new goals e.g. I am going to loose 5kg The goals should be discussed and agreed with you and your coach, otherwise you will not be motivated. The acceptance by both parties gives ownership and confidence to the performer Goals should be challenging but attainable. They can be motivational, give direction and control anxiety. You need a time frame so that you have reached all of your short term goals before the performance. If goals are time-phased they provide a focus and motivation to achieve. 46 Technical and Tactical Influences Skill Key Terms: Term Definition Skill A learned ability Learning The act of gaining knowledge or acquiring skill Ability An innate physical characteristic which facilitates movement e.g. strength, coordination Technique Basic movement pattern Performance How a skill is carried out Types of skill: Basic and Complex relates to the difficulty of the skill BASIC/ SIMPLE SKILLS COMPLEX SKILLS RUNNING • • DOUBLE SOMERSAULT IN DIVING BASIC MOVEMENT PATTERNS LIMITED AMOUNT OF INFORMATION TO PROCESS AND A SMALLER COGNITIVE ELEMENT • • 47 INVOLVE MORE DECISION – MAKING BIGGER COGNITIVE ELEMENT (MORE THOUGHT) Open and closed skills relate to how the environment can affect the skill OPEN SKILLS HOCKEY PASS IN GAME SITUATION/ WINDSURFING • • • • CLOSED SKILLS HIGH JUMP BADMINTON SERVE • • • • • • SKILL THAT IS AFFECTED BY THE ENVIRONMENT REQUIRES ADAPTABILITY FROM PERFORMER TO SUIT THE NEEDS OF THE ENVIRONMENT OPEN SKILLS NEEDED WHERE YOU CANNOT CONTROL WHAT WILL HAPPEN NEXT DECISION MAKING REQUIRED MORE INFORMATION TO PROCESS. USED IN A FIXED ENVIRONMENT NO OUTSIDE INFLUENCES CAN BECOME A HABIT CAN CONTROL WHAT HAPPENS NEXT LESS DECISION MAKING REQUIRED Environment factors that can effect if a skill is open or closed: Venue Opposition Own team Stage of competition Weather Surface Crowd Extent of pressure 48 GYMNASTICS HAND STAND / SHOT PUT Stages of Learning There are 3 stages of learning, progressing from the beginner’s stage to the expert stage of performance: ADVANCED BEGINNER ASSOCIATIVE COGNITIVE AUTONOMOUS Cognitive Stage Beginners need to understand what to do, by being shown or told what to do Clear mental picture needed Lots of time needed Clear demonstrations Many mistakes will occur Praise important in feedback Associative Stage Techniques have been learnt Concentration on skill Fewer errors made Understand how to correct errors Can deal with more complex instructions Internal and External feedback used to improve Autonomous Stage Skills have become automatic More concentration on tactics and strategies Few errors, self-corrected Coaching only needed for skill and tactics Consistency is high, movements fluent Intense practice needed Characteristics of a skilled performer AESTHETIC CONFIDENT CONTROLLED SMOOTH TECHNICAL EFFICIENT SUCCESSFUL ACCURATE CHARACTERISTICS OF A SKILLED PERFORMER/PERFORMANCE INCREASED ANTICIPATION BETTER TIMING CONSISTENT FITNESS FOR PURPOSE FEWER ERRORS KNOWLEDGABLE ABLE TO INTERPRET EFFECTIVE ABLE TO ADAPT MAXIMUM OUTPUT WITH MINIMUM OUTLAY OF ENERGY AND TIME 49 The Learning Process Information processing system (IPS): INPUT Incoming information – Visual, audio, touch Proprioceptors in muscles detect movement Selective attention – focussing on the important information e.g. speed of game not crowd FEEDBACK Is essential for learning Helps correct and improve performance Reinforce good actions Identify strengths and weaknesses Influence goal setting Encourage and motivate DECISION MAKING Interpreting information and making a decision in response Searching memory for previous situations – Short term memory – working memory Long term memory – drawing on past experiences OUTPUT Output is the movement response The actual action taken as a result of the decision made 50 Feedback - Effective feedback for a sports performer should be easily understood. Ways in which feedback should be given: Accurately Truthfully Concisely Immediately Easily understood Fits the needs of the performer Positive – highlighting strengths and ways to improve weakness Information given Frequency – danger of overloading with information Analytical There are two types/components of feedback – Knowledge of Performance (KP) and Knowledge of Results (KR). KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS.... KNOWLEDGE OF PERFORMANCE.... Tells you whether you achieved your particular result (outcome) irrespective of your performance. 400m runner given time, javelin thrower getting distance (extrinsic) Tells you how you performed irrespective of the result it comes from your coach, fellow players, spectators (external) or even video evidence, You can also sense how you did (Intrinsic) ASSESSMENT OF PERFORMANCE Correct use of KP and KR will give you an accurate assessment of how you performed. You can use all this feedback to work out your strengths and weaknesses and come up with an action plan to improve performance INTRINSIC FEEDBACK: YOU know how well you did the technique because of what it FELT like EXTRINSIC FEEDBACK: SOMEONE ELSE tells you or shows you what happened, and how to improve 51 Guidance Guidance is part of the learning process. Guidance is the help and instruction given to complete a task. There are three types of guidance – Visual, Verbal and Manual/Mechanical Visual: Demonstrations, videos, posters, wall charts. Especially useful when learning a new skill – shows the learner the pattern of movement. Verbal: Guidance listened to, instructional – can be repeated and changed to suit purpose, creating an image of the task. The amount and quality of information given is important. Effective with small groups/ individuals or advanced groups where tactics/ positional plays are important. Often used with visual. Manual/ Mechanical: Physical support/ artificial aids/ manipulative aids. Useful for complex or dangerous skills – reduce error, gives confidence. Especially good for the first time performance e.g. somersault in gymnastics Practice Practice of skills is important for learning to take place. Practice makes skill, habitual, consistent, reliable, effective and accurate. The type of practice will vary depending on the following factors: The skill being learnt – open/closed, basic/complex The stage of learning the performer is at Previous experiences/amount of knowledge Motivation of the learner Age Time available Expectations/goals/aims Feedback Facilities/equipment available Environmental factors 52 There are 5 types of practice: 1) Whole Practice – Complete skill performed as a whole movement e.g. triple jump 2) Part Practice – Involves breaking the skill into parts – best suited to complex skills e.g. swimming breast stroke with a float, breaking the arms and legs down separate 3) Whole-Part-Whole Practice – combination practice, try as whole to get a feel, then practice parts, then put together again – normally complex skills, both of the above examples could be used.] 4) Fixed Practice – Skill is repeated over and over – best for closed skills e.g. handstand 5) Variable Practice – Practice matches changing situations in game – best for open skills e.g. 4 v 1 53 Technological developments You will need to identify the role that specific technological development has played in the health and performance fields of physical exercise activity: Materials/equipment: Facilities/surfaces/materials Personal clothing Performance enhancement – officiating, training methods, analysis of fitness and performance 54