Download The Little-known World of Flies

SECTION HEADER
THE
LITTLE-KNOWN
WORLD OF
FLIES!
Geetha Iyer
ToknowtheflyistoshareabitinthesublimityofKnowledge.
-ProfVincentGDethier
Whatmakesfliesdifferentfromadragonflyorabutterfly?Howdothelovely
iridescentbluebottleandgreenbottleflieshelpsolvemurders?Whatdoinsect
bites,gallsandchocolatehaveincommon?Doflieshavetaste-buds?Howdowe
introducefliesinscienceclassrooms?Thisarticleexploresthefascinatingworld
oftrueflies,theirincrediblevariety,andthediversityofservicestheyprovideus
with,endingwithanactivitythatteacherscanusetounravelalittlethoughtof
aspectofflylifetostudents.
Introduction
Fliesgenerallyconjureavisionofdirt,disease
anddisgust.
Ourintroductiontothisimageoffliesisinschool.
Astudentisintroducedtothehumblehouseflyin
aconclusivemanner,leavingonewiththe
impressionthatallfliesarerepulsivecreatures.
Limitedscientificinformationabouthousefliesis
accompaniedbyavividdescriptionofthemouth
partsbeingusedtodrinkfrommuck,thereby
leavinganindelibleimageofaflyonlyasa
vermin.Astudents’nextencounterwiththeflyis
duringalessononhealth,asthecarrierof
diseases,therebynailingthecoffinonthe
possibilityoffliesbeinganythingbutloathsome
creatures.
Nodoubttherearemanyfliesthatbiteandspread
disease.But,doallfliesdeservesuchanimage?
It’stimesomeonespokeupforflies,whosecolour,
varietyandeleganceshouldnotbejudgedonlyby
thehousefly,orthebehaviourrestrictedtoafrolic
indecomposingheaps,althoughthisfrolicisnot
Brown Muscid Fly
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withoutbenefit,andIshallsoontellyouhow
andwhy.
isthattrueflieshaveevolvedfromfour-winged
ancestorsinthePermian250MYA(millionyears
ago).Intheirmodern-daydescendants,however,
thissecondpair-thehindwings-hasbecome
reducedtoclub-shapedstructures,called
Halteres.Eachhalterecanbelikenedtoa
gyroscope;theyareessentialinmaintaining
balanceduringflight.
Althoughtherearemanyinterestingaspectsof
fliesthatonecandwellon,inthisarticle.Iwill
confinemyselftointroducingyoutoasmallgroup
onecanchanceupon,eveninurban
environments;andtothediversityandservices
somefliesinthisorderperform.Ishallconclude
withhowthemouthpartsofahouseflycanbe
observedinamannerthatismoreinteresting
thanlookingataslide,withartificialcolours,
underamicroscope.
Arefliesfilthy?
Fliesareamongthecleanestofinsects,andare
veryparticularabouttheirownhygiene.Infact,
humanscouldtakealessonortwoonpersonal
hygienefromthem.Observeaflycloselynext
time,andyouwillnoticehowfrequentlyit
cleansitself.
Ifaflydoesvisitdecomposingmaterialsforits
nutrientrequirements,itdoessotosatisfyits
nutritionalneeds.Afterall,wehumans,too,like
foodgrowingondecomposingmatter,don’twe?If
youweretotakeasurveyofyourdailyintakeof
food,you’dbesurprisedbyhowmanyofour
favouritefoodscomefromdecomposingmatter!
Takemushrooms,forexample,thatgrowsovery
welloncowdung;orKombucha,ahealthdrink,
madebyallowingcertainyeastandbacterial
species(kombuchacultureappearinglikeaslimy
pancake)togrowinasugarysolutionofblackor
greentea!Whatavarietyoffermentingfood
itemsweconsume!
Chrysops sp. Biting fly.
Twowingsseemtohavemadethemnolessagile
thanotherinsects,eminentlydeservingthename
“fly”!Considerthesefacts,notlearntinaclasson
flies.Fliesareincrediblynimbleinflight.Thebest
aerialistsamonginsects,theycanhover,fly
backwards,turninplaceandflyupsidedownto
landontheceiling!Theyhavesensors-speed
indicators-locatedinapartoftheirantenna
calledarista,togaugetheirflightspeed.A
housefly’swingspeedisabout190beatsina
singlesecond!Thefastestmuscularcontractiona
humanbeingcanmanageclocksattentimesper
second.Nomysterythen,whyitissodifficultto
swatafly!
Perhaps,someoftheblameforthediseasesthat
fliestransmitliesinhumanstoo!Ifwegavemore
thoughttoourhygieneandsanitation,flies
wouldn’tfrequentourenvironmentsofreely,
wouldthey?
Howmanyfliesarethereintheworld?
Nooneknowsanexactnumber.Asmentioned
before,truefliesbelongtotheorderDiptera,
whichisthethirdlargestgroupamonginsects.
Mosquitoesbelongtothisordertoo!Morethan
1,60,000speciesofflieshavealreadybeen
describedbyspecialists;withverymanymoreyet
tobeclassified,andseveralmoretobe
discovered.Asyoucantell,thismeansavery
largenumber,indeed!
Whatisafly?
InaworldpopulatedbytheButterfly,Dragonfly,
Scorpionfly,Mayfly,Stonefly,Firefly,Owlfly,and
soon,whatisthisinsectthatissimplycalledafly?
Theinsectslistedabovearenotfliesfroman
entomologists’pointofview.Truefliesareinsects
thatbelongtotheorderDiptera,anamethat
describestheirdefiningfeature–theseflieshave
onlyonepairofwings(inLatin,di:meanstwo,
andptera:meanswings).Incontrast,insects
belongingtoallotherinsectordershavetwopairs
ofwings!Whatmakesthisevenmoreinteresting
I WONDER...
FlyServicesandDiversity
Everyfamilyofanimals(includinghumans)on
thisplanet,havetheirshareofvillainsandheroes;
and,flyfamiliesarenoexception!Therearemany
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interestingthingsonecanlearnbyexploringthe
worldofflies.Ishalldescribeahandfulof
thesehere.
coriander,onion,carrot,pepper,andcapsicum,to
nameafew.
Thelifeofaninsectisfulloftricksandtreatsthat
contributetoitssurvival.Onesuchfeatureisthe
differingfoodsourceforlarvaeandadults.Adult
insectsdon’tcompetewiththeiryoungonesfor
food.Thus,whiletheadulthoverflyisa
vegetarianhelpingwithpollination;it’slarvaeor
maggotsareinsectivorous,feedingonawide
rangeofprey-mostlyaphidsandothersap
suckinginsects,andtherebyactingaspestcontrol
agents-anotherfactaboutfliesthatrarely
receivesanyattention.Thus,syrphidfliesare
importantaspollinatorsandpestcontrollers.
A.FliesasPollinators:Itisawell-established
factthatplantsandinsectshavemutually
influencedtheevolutionoftheirdiversity.Flies
arebelievedtobeforemostamongstthe
pollinatorsofearlyfloweringplants;yettheirrole
insuchanimportantserviceremainsrelatively
unknown.Ofthe150dipteranfamilies,flyspecies
ofnearly70families(Evenhuisetal.2008)are
knowntovisitflowerstofeed.Ithasbeen
documentedthatfliesaretheprimarypollinators
forseveralhundredsofwildorcultivatedplants
(closeto550,accordingtoLarsenetal.2001).
Pollinationbyfliesis,generally,referredto
asmyophily.
Whatmakesfliessuchgoodpollinators?Theyare
notonlyabundant,butarealsopresentinwidely
diversehabitats.Theyarethemostimportant
pollinatorsinalpineorarcticregions,where
pollinationbybeesisreduced.Intheunderstoreyregionsofforests,fliesarebelievedtobe
importantinpollinatingawidevarietyofshrubs
withsmall,inconspicuousordioeciousflowers.
Theirabundantpresenceiscomplimentedby
anatomicalfeatures,suchasvariationsinmouth
parts,tonguelength,sizeanddegreeofpilosity
(hairiness);allofwhichcontributetomakingflies
someofthemosteffectivepollinators,ever.Plants
wouldprobablynodtheir(flower)heads
inagreement!
Hover fly Mesembrius quadrivittatus.
Plantsputoutavarietyofodourstoattract
insects.Theputridsmellofdecayingfleshfrom
someflowersattractscarrionanddungflies,
belongingtotheFamilyCalliphoridae.Theyvisit
theseflowers,expectingtofinddecayingflesh
and,pollinatethem,evenastheyleave
disappointed.Commonlycalledblowflies,the
bluebottleandgreenbottlefliesarequite
colourfulandattractive.Interestingly,theyplay
animportantroleinforensics(seebelow).
Fliesvisitflowersfortheirownreasons:nectar
andpollenaresourcesoffood.Theproteinsin
pollenarenecessaryforsomefliestoreproduce.
Somefliesvisitflowerstolaytheireggs,ensuring
thattheirdevelopinglarvaehaveeasyaccessto
food–theflowerheads,seedsordeveloping
fruits.And,so,forsomeflies,flowersaremating
(dating?)sites.Howconvenient!
Myfavouriteamongthesepollinators,without
doubt,wouldbethebeautifulandcolourfulflies
oftheFamilySyrphidae,commonlycalledhover
fliesorflowerflies.Atfirstglance,ahoverfly
wouldhardlystrikeoneasafly,lookingmorelike
abee,thanafly.Eachofthem,however,hassucha
longproboscis,thatitcangointothedeepestof
corollastosipnectar.Thismakesthemexcellent
pollinators,servingawiderangeofplants,and
secondonlytobeesinthisrole.Alargenumberof
foodsweconsumearepollinatedbyhoverflies.
Lookforthesefliesamongsttheflowersofmango,
apple,pear,cherry,andstrawberry;oramong
Blow fly-Blue bottle fly, Calliphora sp.
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MAGAZINE SUBHEAD
Tabanid fly - Philoliche spp. Photo by Sanjay Sondhi
Blowfly – Greenbottle, Lucilla sp.
Thatuniversallylovedfood-chocolate,owesits
existencetoflies!Midgesareflies.Those
belongingtothefamiliesCeratopogonidaeand
Cecidomyiidae,areknownmorefortheirbiting
andgall-forminghabitsthanforanything
applaudable.But,notallofthemarebitersor
gallers!Thecocoaplantreliesonsmallmidge
speciesofthesetwofamiliestopollinateitstiny
whiteblossoms,producedonthelowerpartsof
itsmaintrunk.Themushroomishodourofthe
flowerattractsmidges,justaschocolatesattract
us.Otherthanaparticularspeciesofhoverfliesin
somerestrictedregions,cocoaplantsneed
midgestoproducefruit.Nomidge,nococoa,no
chocolates!DoIhearshoutsofthreecheersfor
midges?Doremembertothankflies,thenext
timeyoufeastonchocolatesorcocoa.
Golden blowfly.
Robustly,builtfliesofthefamilyTabanidae,
commonlycalledhorseflies,or,simply,tabanid
flies,aremostlybloodthirstyflies;butsomeof
themarelesserfiends.Theyareconsideredpests,
sincemanyspeciesbiteanimalsandhumans.But,
some,withtheirspectacularlylongtongues
pollinateflowersthathavelongtube-shaped
corollas(imageTabanidfly–Philolichesp.).Inthe
femalesofcertainPhilolichespecies,theverylong
tongueisadaptedtoperformthedualfunctionsof
bloodsuckingandnectarsipping!Rhinomyophilyisthetermthatdescribespollinationby
long-tonguedflies.
A midge
B.FliesinForensics:Fromthelivingtothedead,
fromflowerstocorpses-asfliessearchfor
nutrition,theiractionsbestowindirectassistance
tootherlivingorganisms.Flieshelphumansin
criminalinvestigations,andareafavouritewith
forensicentomologists.
Blowfliesarenotjustpollinators;theirlovefor
decomposinganimalmatterdrawsthemtothe
dead.Infact,theyarethefirsttoarriveatadeath
Tabanid fly - Philoliche spp. Photo by Sanjay Sondhi
I WONDER...
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scene!Soacuteisitssenseofsmell,thatablowfly
canapparentlysmelladeadbody16kmaway!
Membersofthisfamilyareknownbyvarious
names–bluebottles,greenbottles.Theyareeasily
recognised-lookinglikealargerversionofthe
commonhousefly.Whyaretheydrawntodead
bodies,onemayask?Blowflieslookatdead
bodiesasafoodsourcefortheiryoungones.They
laytheireggsintheorificesofcorpses,and
maggotshatchoutin24hours.Fleshflies,ofthe
FamilySarcophagidae,givebirthtoliveyoung
onesonthefleshofthecorpses!Howdoesthis
behaviourhelpus?Thelifehistoryofablowflyis
well-documented,providingamineof
informationduringpost-mortemsofthecorpses
thatattractthem.
odourofblood.Theownerconfessestothecrime,
and,so,begantheuseoffliestosolvecrimes.
IfyouareafanoftheTVserial“Bones”,then,
surely,youmustalreadybeawareofthenuances
offorensicentomology,fromtheworkofthe
characterJackHodgins,aforensicentomologistcum-botanist.
Therearemanyothersuchinterestinginstances
ofcrimes,solvedwiththehelpofflies.
C.FliesasPestControlAgents:Agricultural
researchersandpragmaticfarmerswillvouchfor
theservicesprovidedbyfliesinkeepingacheck
onphytophagousinsects.Therearemanyflies
thathelpintheseroles,butdescribedbelowarea
fewfavouritesofmine.
Icallthemjewelflies,andnotlong-leggedflies,as
theyaremorecommonlycalled.Theirmore
commonnamepointstotheirlonglegs,astriking
featureofthefliesofthefamilyDolichopodidae.
Jewelfliesareslenderanddaintylittleflies,
sportingbeautifulcolours.Mostlyblue,green,and
goldwithametallicshine,thereareafewofthese
ecologicallyimportantfliesthatsportadullgrey
colourtoo.Lookingverymuchlikeaflyonstilts;
youcannotmissthem.Theyhaveaslenderbody,
prominenteyes,andtheirtrademarklonglegs.
Malesshowofftheirlonglegstoattractfemales;
quitetheoppositeofthehumanspeciesitwould
seem!Lavishmanoeuvresandsignalsmarkthe
courtshipbehaviourofmales.Manyoftheseflies
mateinflight,whichisanexhaustingpractice;so,
sometimesmalescreateanillusionbysportinga
patterntoconthefemalesintothinkingthatthey
arematinginflight.
Flesh Fly
Otherspeciesofflies,suchastheblacksoldierfly,
thecoffinfly,theblackscavengerfly,membersof
Hydroteasp.ofFamilyMuscidae,and
humpbackedflies,areequallyusefulinproviding
importantinformationduringautopsies.Their
servicesrangefromdeterminingwhetherthe
corpsehasbeenmovedfromtheoriginalsceneof
crime,informationabouttoxicology,and,inmany
cases,eveninfixingthetimeofdeath.
Foundinmosthabitats,Jewelfliesarepredatory,
feedingonawidevarietyofinvertebrates-
aphids,thrips,spidermites,andcollembolans.In
fact,aparticularspeciesofDolichopuspreyson
mosquitolarvae!Somespeciesarescavengers
too.Thesefliesarefidgety;soonehastobereally
stillandsilenttowatchthem.
“TheWashingAwayofWrongs"writtenin1247
ADbySungTz’u,acrimeinvestigatorinChina,is
thefirstrecordoffliesincriminalinvestigation.
Thisbookisthefirsttolaythefoundationsof
forensicentomology.Amurderhappensina
Chinesevillage,andthedeadman’sbodyis
discovered,cutupbadly.Unabletomakeany
headwaywithhisinvestigation,theinvestigator
asksallthevillagerstobringtheirsickles,andlay
itonthegroundinfrontofhim.Soonfliesswarm
toonesickle.Theownerhadnotwashedhis
sicklewell,andtheflieswereattractedtothe
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Robbersinjectcapturedpreywithsaliva
containingneurotoxicandproteolyticenzymes,
killingthem.Bothadultandjuvenilerobberflies
preyonawidevarietyofinsects,thusservingthe
importantecologicalfunctionofkeepingacheck
ontheinsectfaunainanyarea.
Long-legged flies
SoldiersandRobbersperformingsimilar
functionscouldhappenonlyintheworldof
insects!Soldierfliesbelongtothefamily
Stratiomyidaewhereastherobberflies,toFamily
Asilidae.Intheworldofflies,therobbersattack
andcatchpestsmoreoftenthanthesoldiers;the
latter’sservicesarevariedandinclude
somepredation.
Robberfliesarethemostpredatorygroupinthe
worldofflies,andfeedexclusivelyoninsects.
Theirnameistrulyrepresentativeoftheir
behaviour.Theyareaggressivehunters,ambush
theirprey,andarestronglybuiltwithpowerful
musclesthathelpthemcaptureinsectsinflight!
Theyarerobbersinappearancetoo,sportinga
tuftofstiffbristles-likeamoustache-between
theireyes,thataremountedprominentlyontheir
head.Infact,theterm‘mystax’usedtodescribe
thesebristlesisderivedfromtheGreekword
meaning‘moustache’or‘upperlip’.These
cosmopolitanfliesenjoyaworldwide
distribution,butarecommonintropicaland
subtropicalareas,andabundantindryandsunny
aridorsemi-aridzones.
Mating Robber Flies
Robberfliescanveryeasilybeidentifiedbytheir
longslenderbodies,withthetipsoftheir
abdomensvisiblebeyondthefoldedwings.The
mystaxisunmistakable,andtheheadandthorax
ishairy.Becauseoftheirlongtaperingabdomen,
combinedwithbrightlycoloured–black,grey,red
oryellow-patterns,theyareoftenmistakenfor
wasps.Someofthemwithstout,hairybodies,
mimicbees;whileotherswithslender,lithe
bodies,imitatedamselflies.Asyoucansee,these
robbershavemasteredtheartofdisguisetoo!
Theirperchisanotherwayofidentifyingthese
fliesinahabitat.Robbersliketoperchonthe
topmostendofaplantwaitingtoseizeprey.
I WONDER...
Green Soldier Fly
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Soldier Fly
Crane Fly
Soldierfliesarediverseintheirhabitsandfood
preferences,butaremainlyrecognisedbytheir
uniquewingvenation.Somesoldiersare
pollinators;someassistwithforensics;othersare
helpfulincompostingwaste;whileafewofthem
arepredatory.Thebrightlycolouredones
resemblewaspsandbees.Soldiersmaybe
saprophagus,myophagousorpredatory;andare
generallyfoundclosetoaquatichabitatsinwhich
theirlarvaedevelop.Thesefliesarenotawidely
researchedgroup,exceptHermetiaillucens,
whichiscommonlycalledtheblacksoldierfly.We
shalllookatthisflyagain,inthenextsection.
Thecompostpitinmybackyardhasblacksoldier
flies.Thephotogivenhereisofoneofthem
helpingdecomposewaste,alongwithother
organisms.
Black Soldier Fly
E.FliesinScientificResearch:Fruitflieshave
beeninourlaboratoriesfordecadesnow,and
continuetoplayawell-knownandextensively
documentedroleinoureffortstounderstand
geneactionandinheritancemechanisms.
Whatislesswell-knownistheroleoffliesinsome
otherkindsofexperiments.In2007,forexample,
someresearchersatHarvardUniversitybuilta
roboticfly.Weighing60mg,andwithawingspan
of3cm,thislife-likeflywasmodelledtoimitate
themovementsofarealfly.Madeofultra-thin
carbonfibre,theroboticflyhasawingbeatof110
beats/second.Thiseffortisthefirststepto
Small Soldier Fly
D.FliesinComposting:Theblacksoldierfly,
Hermetiaillucens,isnowbeingextensivelyused
tocompostwastes.However,thisprocessisyetto
findwiderapplicationinIndia,andiscurrently
beingpractisedonlybyafewresearchersinPune.
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MAGAZINE SUBHEAD
buildingflyinginsectsthatcanbemountedwith
sensors,tofunctionasspies.‘Flyonthewall’will
soonbecomeareality,andnotjustbeafancy
idiom,orsoitseems.Armylaboratorieshave
definitelyshownagreatinterestintheseflyspies.
theminsideadrytransparentjar.Donotkeeptoo
manyoftheminsideonejar.
Thenextfewstepsarethetrickyones.Takethree
glassslides,andnumberthem1,2and3.Puta
fewdropsofwateron1and,2,andsugar
solutionon3.
F.FliesandSoilFertility:Imagineanoversized
mosquito-thatiswhatacraneflyortipulidfly,
belongingtothefamilyTipulidae,lookslike.But,
thesimilarityendswiththeirappearance.These
gentlefliesnotonlydonotbite;adultsdonotfeed
atall!Adultfliesliveforabout10to15days.
Femalesemergefromtheirpupawithmatureova.
Theyseekoutmates,andsoonafter,laytheireggs
onmoistsoil,orsometimes,onthesurfaceof
water.Astheyfeed,theirlarvaehelpdecompose
organicmatter,andincreasemicrobialactivityin
thesoil.Theyare,therefore,veryusefulinasoil
ecosystem,keepingthesoilfertilethrough
theiractivities.
Thestepfollowingthishastobedonevery
quickly.SmearsomeFevicol(notFeviquick,
pleasenote)onyourforefinger,openthejarwith
thetrappedflies,andtouchthethoraxofthe
nearestflywithyourforefinger.Theflywillget
stucktoyourfinger.Holditgentlywithyour
fingersinsuchawaythatbothitswingsremain
foldedonitsback.Don’tworry-attheendofthis
experiment,youcanreleasetheflybywashing
yourforefingerinwater.Theflywillbewetfor
sometime(youcangentlydabitdrywithacloth),
butwillsoondryitselfout,andfly.
Theflywillbestressedbecauseofitscaptivity.
Whenyougentlyloweritclosetothewater-drop
onslide1,youcanactuallyseeitsproboscispop
outofitsheadtodrinkwater.Whenithasfinished
drinkingwater,takeitofffromslideone,andnow
loweritontothewaterdropinslidetwoinsucha
waythatitsfeettouchthewater.Doyouseethe
probosciscomingdown?
Theyareveryeasilyrecognizedbytheirslender
elongatedbodiesandlegs.Theirlegs,especially,
arequitelong.Althoughtheyarefound
worldwide,theirdiversityisgreatestinthe
tropics.Easilyattractedtolight,youcanseethem
clingingtothewallswiththeirlonglegsspread
out.Orifyouareoutforawalkinthemorning,
theycanbeseenrestingonleaves.Interestingly,
cranefliescanoftenbeseenwalkingaseasily
asflying!
Now,repeatthesamewithslidethree,andyou
willseethatassoonasitslegstouchthesugar
solution,outpopsthefly’sproboscistofeedon
thesugarsolution.Youmaynowtrydifferent
kindsoffood,andinvestigatethefly’sfeeding
preferencesorhowmuchitneedstofeedon,etc.
Seeinganinsectfeedcreatesanactivelearning
atmosphereintheclassroom,whichcanthenbe
followedupwithanatomicaldetailsunderthe
microscope.
FliesinScienceClassrooms
Thehousefly,nodoubt,willcontinuetobetheone
thatstudentswillencountermostoftenintheir
lessons.Whynotmakeitinterestingtoteacha
lessononthemouthpartsofaflyinadifferent
way?Mouthpartsareforfeeding,andwhatbetter
waytolearnaboutthemthantoactuallyseea
flyfeeding.
Conclusion
Howdoesonedothis?Tobeginwith,onewould,
ofcourse,needalivefly.And,manipulatinga
smallflycanbeatrickyaffair!Butwithalittlebit
ofpractice,youshouldbefine!It’sonlyfairto
mentionthatthisinvestigationcallsforalotof
patienceandtime,butiswellworththetime
spentindoingit,forIassureyouthatalotmore
thanhowaflydetectsorfeedsislearntthrough
suchactivities.Forexample,thisinvestigationwill
showthatfliestastewiththeirfeet!
Thisisbutasmallintroductiontoafewfamiliesof
fliesthatmaybefoundmorecommonlyinour
humanenvironments,andarebigenoughtobe
recognised.Morethan1,60,000speciesofflies,
andstillcounting-makesmeagreewithNash,
whenhesays:
Godinhiswisdom
Madethefly
Andthenforgot
Totelluswhy
Leavesomeoverripebananaoramangoaround,
andverysoonyouwillseemanyhouseflies
payingthemavisit.Useasmallteastrainerora
moistclothtotrapafewoftheseflies,andstore
I WONDER...
–OgdenNash
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4.Courtshipinlong-leggedflies
(Diptera:Dolichopodidae):functionand
evolutionofsignals.MartinZimmer,Olaf
Diestelhorst,andKlausLunau.Behavioral
Ecology,Vol.14,No.4:526–530.URL:
http://beheco.oxfordjournals.org/content/14/4
/526.full.pdf
References
1.Oneproboscis,twotasks:Adaptationstobloodfeedingandnectar-extractinginlong-proboscid
horseflies(Tabanidae,Philoliche).Karolyia
Florianetal.ArthropodStructure&
Development,Vol.43:Issue5,Sept2014:403413.
5.RobberFlies(Asilidae).FritzGeller-Grimm,
TorstenDikow&RobertJ.Lavigne.URL:
http://www.geller-grimm.de/asilidae.htm.
2.Theuseofinsectsinforensicinvestigations:An
overviewonthescopeofforensicentomology.
Josephetal.JournalofForensicDentalSciences,
Vol.3(2);Jul-Dec2011:89-91.URL:
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC32963
82/
6.OccurrenceofBlackSoldierFlyHermetia
illucens(Diptera:Stratiomyidae)in
Biocompost.GujarathiGayatriR.andPejaver
MadhuriK.ResearchJournalofRecent
Sciences,Vol.2(4),April(2013):65-66.URL:
http://www.isca.in/rjrs/archive/v2/i4/9.ISCARJRS-2012-469.pdf.
3.Lordsoftheflies:theinsectdetectives.Jon
Henley.TheGuardian:ForensicScience.Sep23,
2010.URL:
http://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/se
p/23/flies-murder-natural-history-museum.
7.Blacksoldierflyfarming.URL:
http://www.blacksoldierflyfarming.com/.
GeethaIyerisanAuthorandIndependentconsultantworkinginthetwinfieldsofEducationand
Environment.Shehaswrittenextensivelyontopicsineducation,environmentandNaturalHistory.
[email protected]
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