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SECTION HEADER THE LITTLE-KNOWN WORLD OF FLIES! Geetha Iyer ToknowtheflyistoshareabitinthesublimityofKnowledge. -ProfVincentGDethier Whatmakesfliesdifferentfromadragonflyorabutterfly?Howdothelovely iridescentbluebottleandgreenbottleflieshelpsolvemurders?Whatdoinsect bites,gallsandchocolatehaveincommon?Doflieshavetaste-buds?Howdowe introducefliesinscienceclassrooms?Thisarticleexploresthefascinatingworld oftrueflies,theirincrediblevariety,andthediversityofservicestheyprovideus with,endingwithanactivitythatteacherscanusetounravelalittlethoughtof aspectofflylifetostudents. Introduction Fliesgenerallyconjureavisionofdirt,disease anddisgust. Ourintroductiontothisimageoffliesisinschool. Astudentisintroducedtothehumblehouseflyin aconclusivemanner,leavingonewiththe impressionthatallfliesarerepulsivecreatures. Limitedscientificinformationabouthousefliesis accompaniedbyavividdescriptionofthemouth partsbeingusedtodrinkfrommuck,thereby leavinganindelibleimageofaflyonlyasa vermin.Astudents’nextencounterwiththeflyis duringalessononhealth,asthecarrierof diseases,therebynailingthecoffinonthe possibilityoffliesbeinganythingbutloathsome creatures. Nodoubttherearemanyfliesthatbiteandspread disease.But,doallfliesdeservesuchanimage? It’stimesomeonespokeupforflies,whosecolour, varietyandeleganceshouldnotbejudgedonlyby thehousefly,orthebehaviourrestrictedtoafrolic indecomposingheaps,althoughthisfrolicisnot Brown Muscid Fly 1 MAGAZINE SUBHEAD withoutbenefit,andIshallsoontellyouhow andwhy. isthattrueflieshaveevolvedfromfour-winged ancestorsinthePermian250MYA(millionyears ago).Intheirmodern-daydescendants,however, thissecondpair-thehindwings-hasbecome reducedtoclub-shapedstructures,called Halteres.Eachhalterecanbelikenedtoa gyroscope;theyareessentialinmaintaining balanceduringflight. Althoughtherearemanyinterestingaspectsof fliesthatonecandwellon,inthisarticle.Iwill confinemyselftointroducingyoutoasmallgroup onecanchanceupon,eveninurban environments;andtothediversityandservices somefliesinthisorderperform.Ishallconclude withhowthemouthpartsofahouseflycanbe observedinamannerthatismoreinteresting thanlookingataslide,withartificialcolours, underamicroscope. Arefliesfilthy? Fliesareamongthecleanestofinsects,andare veryparticularabouttheirownhygiene.Infact, humanscouldtakealessonortwoonpersonal hygienefromthem.Observeaflycloselynext time,andyouwillnoticehowfrequentlyit cleansitself. Ifaflydoesvisitdecomposingmaterialsforits nutrientrequirements,itdoessotosatisfyits nutritionalneeds.Afterall,wehumans,too,like foodgrowingondecomposingmatter,don’twe?If youweretotakeasurveyofyourdailyintakeof food,you’dbesurprisedbyhowmanyofour favouritefoodscomefromdecomposingmatter! Takemushrooms,forexample,thatgrowsovery welloncowdung;orKombucha,ahealthdrink, madebyallowingcertainyeastandbacterial species(kombuchacultureappearinglikeaslimy pancake)togrowinasugarysolutionofblackor greentea!Whatavarietyoffermentingfood itemsweconsume! Chrysops sp. Biting fly. Twowingsseemtohavemadethemnolessagile thanotherinsects,eminentlydeservingthename “fly”!Considerthesefacts,notlearntinaclasson flies.Fliesareincrediblynimbleinflight.Thebest aerialistsamonginsects,theycanhover,fly backwards,turninplaceandflyupsidedownto landontheceiling!Theyhavesensors-speed indicators-locatedinapartoftheirantenna calledarista,togaugetheirflightspeed.A housefly’swingspeedisabout190beatsina singlesecond!Thefastestmuscularcontractiona humanbeingcanmanageclocksattentimesper second.Nomysterythen,whyitissodifficultto swatafly! Perhaps,someoftheblameforthediseasesthat fliestransmitliesinhumanstoo!Ifwegavemore thoughttoourhygieneandsanitation,flies wouldn’tfrequentourenvironmentsofreely, wouldthey? Howmanyfliesarethereintheworld? Nooneknowsanexactnumber.Asmentioned before,truefliesbelongtotheorderDiptera, whichisthethirdlargestgroupamonginsects. Mosquitoesbelongtothisordertoo!Morethan 1,60,000speciesofflieshavealreadybeen describedbyspecialists;withverymanymoreyet tobeclassified,andseveralmoretobe discovered.Asyoucantell,thismeansavery largenumber,indeed! Whatisafly? InaworldpopulatedbytheButterfly,Dragonfly, Scorpionfly,Mayfly,Stonefly,Firefly,Owlfly,and soon,whatisthisinsectthatissimplycalledafly? Theinsectslistedabovearenotfliesfroman entomologists’pointofview.Truefliesareinsects thatbelongtotheorderDiptera,anamethat describestheirdefiningfeature–theseflieshave onlyonepairofwings(inLatin,di:meanstwo, andptera:meanswings).Incontrast,insects belongingtoallotherinsectordershavetwopairs ofwings!Whatmakesthisevenmoreinteresting I WONDER... FlyServicesandDiversity Everyfamilyofanimals(includinghumans)on thisplanet,havetheirshareofvillainsandheroes; and,flyfamiliesarenoexception!Therearemany 2 interestingthingsonecanlearnbyexploringthe worldofflies.Ishalldescribeahandfulof thesehere. coriander,onion,carrot,pepper,andcapsicum,to nameafew. Thelifeofaninsectisfulloftricksandtreatsthat contributetoitssurvival.Onesuchfeatureisthe differingfoodsourceforlarvaeandadults.Adult insectsdon’tcompetewiththeiryoungonesfor food.Thus,whiletheadulthoverflyisa vegetarianhelpingwithpollination;it’slarvaeor maggotsareinsectivorous,feedingonawide rangeofprey-mostlyaphidsandothersap suckinginsects,andtherebyactingaspestcontrol agents-anotherfactaboutfliesthatrarely receivesanyattention.Thus,syrphidfliesare importantaspollinatorsandpestcontrollers. A.FliesasPollinators:Itisawell-established factthatplantsandinsectshavemutually influencedtheevolutionoftheirdiversity.Flies arebelievedtobeforemostamongstthe pollinatorsofearlyfloweringplants;yettheirrole insuchanimportantserviceremainsrelatively unknown.Ofthe150dipteranfamilies,flyspecies ofnearly70families(Evenhuisetal.2008)are knowntovisitflowerstofeed.Ithasbeen documentedthatfliesaretheprimarypollinators forseveralhundredsofwildorcultivatedplants (closeto550,accordingtoLarsenetal.2001). Pollinationbyfliesis,generally,referredto asmyophily. Whatmakesfliessuchgoodpollinators?Theyare notonlyabundant,butarealsopresentinwidely diversehabitats.Theyarethemostimportant pollinatorsinalpineorarcticregions,where pollinationbybeesisreduced.Intheunderstoreyregionsofforests,fliesarebelievedtobe importantinpollinatingawidevarietyofshrubs withsmall,inconspicuousordioeciousflowers. Theirabundantpresenceiscomplimentedby anatomicalfeatures,suchasvariationsinmouth parts,tonguelength,sizeanddegreeofpilosity (hairiness);allofwhichcontributetomakingflies someofthemosteffectivepollinators,ever.Plants wouldprobablynodtheir(flower)heads inagreement! Hover fly Mesembrius quadrivittatus. Plantsputoutavarietyofodourstoattract insects.Theputridsmellofdecayingfleshfrom someflowersattractscarrionanddungflies, belongingtotheFamilyCalliphoridae.Theyvisit theseflowers,expectingtofinddecayingflesh and,pollinatethem,evenastheyleave disappointed.Commonlycalledblowflies,the bluebottleandgreenbottlefliesarequite colourfulandattractive.Interestingly,theyplay animportantroleinforensics(seebelow). Fliesvisitflowersfortheirownreasons:nectar andpollenaresourcesoffood.Theproteinsin pollenarenecessaryforsomefliestoreproduce. Somefliesvisitflowerstolaytheireggs,ensuring thattheirdevelopinglarvaehaveeasyaccessto food–theflowerheads,seedsordeveloping fruits.And,so,forsomeflies,flowersaremating (dating?)sites.Howconvenient! Myfavouriteamongthesepollinators,without doubt,wouldbethebeautifulandcolourfulflies oftheFamilySyrphidae,commonlycalledhover fliesorflowerflies.Atfirstglance,ahoverfly wouldhardlystrikeoneasafly,lookingmorelike abee,thanafly.Eachofthem,however,hassucha longproboscis,thatitcangointothedeepestof corollastosipnectar.Thismakesthemexcellent pollinators,servingawiderangeofplants,and secondonlytobeesinthisrole.Alargenumberof foodsweconsumearepollinatedbyhoverflies. Lookforthesefliesamongsttheflowersofmango, apple,pear,cherry,andstrawberry;oramong Blow fly-Blue bottle fly, Calliphora sp. 3 MAGAZINE SUBHEAD Tabanid fly - Philoliche spp. Photo by Sanjay Sondhi Blowfly – Greenbottle, Lucilla sp. Thatuniversallylovedfood-chocolate,owesits existencetoflies!Midgesareflies.Those belongingtothefamiliesCeratopogonidaeand Cecidomyiidae,areknownmorefortheirbiting andgall-forminghabitsthanforanything applaudable.But,notallofthemarebitersor gallers!Thecocoaplantreliesonsmallmidge speciesofthesetwofamiliestopollinateitstiny whiteblossoms,producedonthelowerpartsof itsmaintrunk.Themushroomishodourofthe flowerattractsmidges,justaschocolatesattract us.Otherthanaparticularspeciesofhoverfliesin somerestrictedregions,cocoaplantsneed midgestoproducefruit.Nomidge,nococoa,no chocolates!DoIhearshoutsofthreecheersfor midges?Doremembertothankflies,thenext timeyoufeastonchocolatesorcocoa. Golden blowfly. Robustly,builtfliesofthefamilyTabanidae, commonlycalledhorseflies,or,simply,tabanid flies,aremostlybloodthirstyflies;butsomeof themarelesserfiends.Theyareconsideredpests, sincemanyspeciesbiteanimalsandhumans.But, some,withtheirspectacularlylongtongues pollinateflowersthathavelongtube-shaped corollas(imageTabanidfly–Philolichesp.).Inthe femalesofcertainPhilolichespecies,theverylong tongueisadaptedtoperformthedualfunctionsof bloodsuckingandnectarsipping!Rhinomyophilyisthetermthatdescribespollinationby long-tonguedflies. A midge B.FliesinForensics:Fromthelivingtothedead, fromflowerstocorpses-asfliessearchfor nutrition,theiractionsbestowindirectassistance tootherlivingorganisms.Flieshelphumansin criminalinvestigations,andareafavouritewith forensicentomologists. Blowfliesarenotjustpollinators;theirlovefor decomposinganimalmatterdrawsthemtothe dead.Infact,theyarethefirsttoarriveatadeath Tabanid fly - Philoliche spp. Photo by Sanjay Sondhi I WONDER... 4 scene!Soacuteisitssenseofsmell,thatablowfly canapparentlysmelladeadbody16kmaway! Membersofthisfamilyareknownbyvarious names–bluebottles,greenbottles.Theyareeasily recognised-lookinglikealargerversionofthe commonhousefly.Whyaretheydrawntodead bodies,onemayask?Blowflieslookatdead bodiesasafoodsourcefortheiryoungones.They laytheireggsintheorificesofcorpses,and maggotshatchoutin24hours.Fleshflies,ofthe FamilySarcophagidae,givebirthtoliveyoung onesonthefleshofthecorpses!Howdoesthis behaviourhelpus?Thelifehistoryofablowflyis well-documented,providingamineof informationduringpost-mortemsofthecorpses thatattractthem. odourofblood.Theownerconfessestothecrime, and,so,begantheuseoffliestosolvecrimes. IfyouareafanoftheTVserial“Bones”,then, surely,youmustalreadybeawareofthenuances offorensicentomology,fromtheworkofthe characterJackHodgins,aforensicentomologistcum-botanist. Therearemanyothersuchinterestinginstances ofcrimes,solvedwiththehelpofflies. C.FliesasPestControlAgents:Agricultural researchersandpragmaticfarmerswillvouchfor theservicesprovidedbyfliesinkeepingacheck onphytophagousinsects.Therearemanyflies thathelpintheseroles,butdescribedbelowarea fewfavouritesofmine. Icallthemjewelflies,andnotlong-leggedflies,as theyaremorecommonlycalled.Theirmore commonnamepointstotheirlonglegs,astriking featureofthefliesofthefamilyDolichopodidae. Jewelfliesareslenderanddaintylittleflies, sportingbeautifulcolours.Mostlyblue,green,and goldwithametallicshine,thereareafewofthese ecologicallyimportantfliesthatsportadullgrey colourtoo.Lookingverymuchlikeaflyonstilts; youcannotmissthem.Theyhaveaslenderbody, prominenteyes,andtheirtrademarklonglegs. Malesshowofftheirlonglegstoattractfemales; quitetheoppositeofthehumanspeciesitwould seem!Lavishmanoeuvresandsignalsmarkthe courtshipbehaviourofmales.Manyoftheseflies mateinflight,whichisanexhaustingpractice;so, sometimesmalescreateanillusionbysportinga patterntoconthefemalesintothinkingthatthey arematinginflight. Flesh Fly Otherspeciesofflies,suchastheblacksoldierfly, thecoffinfly,theblackscavengerfly,membersof Hydroteasp.ofFamilyMuscidae,and humpbackedflies,areequallyusefulinproviding importantinformationduringautopsies.Their servicesrangefromdeterminingwhetherthe corpsehasbeenmovedfromtheoriginalsceneof crime,informationabouttoxicology,and,inmany cases,eveninfixingthetimeofdeath. Foundinmosthabitats,Jewelfliesarepredatory, feedingonawidevarietyofinvertebrates- aphids,thrips,spidermites,andcollembolans.In fact,aparticularspeciesofDolichopuspreyson mosquitolarvae!Somespeciesarescavengers too.Thesefliesarefidgety;soonehastobereally stillandsilenttowatchthem. “TheWashingAwayofWrongs"writtenin1247 ADbySungTz’u,acrimeinvestigatorinChina,is thefirstrecordoffliesincriminalinvestigation. Thisbookisthefirsttolaythefoundationsof forensicentomology.Amurderhappensina Chinesevillage,andthedeadman’sbodyis discovered,cutupbadly.Unabletomakeany headwaywithhisinvestigation,theinvestigator asksallthevillagerstobringtheirsickles,andlay itonthegroundinfrontofhim.Soonfliesswarm toonesickle.Theownerhadnotwashedhis sicklewell,andtheflieswereattractedtothe 5 MAGAZINE SUBHEAD Robbersinjectcapturedpreywithsaliva containingneurotoxicandproteolyticenzymes, killingthem.Bothadultandjuvenilerobberflies preyonawidevarietyofinsects,thusservingthe importantecologicalfunctionofkeepingacheck ontheinsectfaunainanyarea. Long-legged flies SoldiersandRobbersperformingsimilar functionscouldhappenonlyintheworldof insects!Soldierfliesbelongtothefamily Stratiomyidaewhereastherobberflies,toFamily Asilidae.Intheworldofflies,therobbersattack andcatchpestsmoreoftenthanthesoldiers;the latter’sservicesarevariedandinclude somepredation. Robberfliesarethemostpredatorygroupinthe worldofflies,andfeedexclusivelyoninsects. Theirnameistrulyrepresentativeoftheir behaviour.Theyareaggressivehunters,ambush theirprey,andarestronglybuiltwithpowerful musclesthathelpthemcaptureinsectsinflight! Theyarerobbersinappearancetoo,sportinga tuftofstiffbristles-likeamoustache-between theireyes,thataremountedprominentlyontheir head.Infact,theterm‘mystax’usedtodescribe thesebristlesisderivedfromtheGreekword meaning‘moustache’or‘upperlip’.These cosmopolitanfliesenjoyaworldwide distribution,butarecommonintropicaland subtropicalareas,andabundantindryandsunny aridorsemi-aridzones. Mating Robber Flies Robberfliescanveryeasilybeidentifiedbytheir longslenderbodies,withthetipsoftheir abdomensvisiblebeyondthefoldedwings.The mystaxisunmistakable,andtheheadandthorax ishairy.Becauseoftheirlongtaperingabdomen, combinedwithbrightlycoloured–black,grey,red oryellow-patterns,theyareoftenmistakenfor wasps.Someofthemwithstout,hairybodies, mimicbees;whileotherswithslender,lithe bodies,imitatedamselflies.Asyoucansee,these robbershavemasteredtheartofdisguisetoo! Theirperchisanotherwayofidentifyingthese fliesinahabitat.Robbersliketoperchonthe topmostendofaplantwaitingtoseizeprey. I WONDER... Green Soldier Fly 6 Soldier Fly Crane Fly Soldierfliesarediverseintheirhabitsandfood preferences,butaremainlyrecognisedbytheir uniquewingvenation.Somesoldiersare pollinators;someassistwithforensics;othersare helpfulincompostingwaste;whileafewofthem arepredatory.Thebrightlycolouredones resemblewaspsandbees.Soldiersmaybe saprophagus,myophagousorpredatory;andare generallyfoundclosetoaquatichabitatsinwhich theirlarvaedevelop.Thesefliesarenotawidely researchedgroup,exceptHermetiaillucens, whichiscommonlycalledtheblacksoldierfly.We shalllookatthisflyagain,inthenextsection. Thecompostpitinmybackyardhasblacksoldier flies.Thephotogivenhereisofoneofthem helpingdecomposewaste,alongwithother organisms. Black Soldier Fly E.FliesinScientificResearch:Fruitflieshave beeninourlaboratoriesfordecadesnow,and continuetoplayawell-knownandextensively documentedroleinoureffortstounderstand geneactionandinheritancemechanisms. Whatislesswell-knownistheroleoffliesinsome otherkindsofexperiments.In2007,forexample, someresearchersatHarvardUniversitybuilta roboticfly.Weighing60mg,andwithawingspan of3cm,thislife-likeflywasmodelledtoimitate themovementsofarealfly.Madeofultra-thin carbonfibre,theroboticflyhasawingbeatof110 beats/second.Thiseffortisthefirststepto Small Soldier Fly D.FliesinComposting:Theblacksoldierfly, Hermetiaillucens,isnowbeingextensivelyused tocompostwastes.However,thisprocessisyetto findwiderapplicationinIndia,andiscurrently beingpractisedonlybyafewresearchersinPune. 7 MAGAZINE SUBHEAD buildingflyinginsectsthatcanbemountedwith sensors,tofunctionasspies.‘Flyonthewall’will soonbecomeareality,andnotjustbeafancy idiom,orsoitseems.Armylaboratorieshave definitelyshownagreatinterestintheseflyspies. theminsideadrytransparentjar.Donotkeeptoo manyoftheminsideonejar. Thenextfewstepsarethetrickyones.Takethree glassslides,andnumberthem1,2and3.Puta fewdropsofwateron1and,2,andsugar solutionon3. F.FliesandSoilFertility:Imagineanoversized mosquito-thatiswhatacraneflyortipulidfly, belongingtothefamilyTipulidae,lookslike.But, thesimilarityendswiththeirappearance.These gentlefliesnotonlydonotbite;adultsdonotfeed atall!Adultfliesliveforabout10to15days. Femalesemergefromtheirpupawithmatureova. Theyseekoutmates,andsoonafter,laytheireggs onmoistsoil,orsometimes,onthesurfaceof water.Astheyfeed,theirlarvaehelpdecompose organicmatter,andincreasemicrobialactivityin thesoil.Theyare,therefore,veryusefulinasoil ecosystem,keepingthesoilfertilethrough theiractivities. Thestepfollowingthishastobedonevery quickly.SmearsomeFevicol(notFeviquick, pleasenote)onyourforefinger,openthejarwith thetrappedflies,andtouchthethoraxofthe nearestflywithyourforefinger.Theflywillget stucktoyourfinger.Holditgentlywithyour fingersinsuchawaythatbothitswingsremain foldedonitsback.Don’tworry-attheendofthis experiment,youcanreleasetheflybywashing yourforefingerinwater.Theflywillbewetfor sometime(youcangentlydabitdrywithacloth), butwillsoondryitselfout,andfly. Theflywillbestressedbecauseofitscaptivity. Whenyougentlyloweritclosetothewater-drop onslide1,youcanactuallyseeitsproboscispop outofitsheadtodrinkwater.Whenithasfinished drinkingwater,takeitofffromslideone,andnow loweritontothewaterdropinslidetwoinsucha waythatitsfeettouchthewater.Doyouseethe probosciscomingdown? Theyareveryeasilyrecognizedbytheirslender elongatedbodiesandlegs.Theirlegs,especially, arequitelong.Althoughtheyarefound worldwide,theirdiversityisgreatestinthe tropics.Easilyattractedtolight,youcanseethem clingingtothewallswiththeirlonglegsspread out.Orifyouareoutforawalkinthemorning, theycanbeseenrestingonleaves.Interestingly, cranefliescanoftenbeseenwalkingaseasily asflying! Now,repeatthesamewithslidethree,andyou willseethatassoonasitslegstouchthesugar solution,outpopsthefly’sproboscistofeedon thesugarsolution.Youmaynowtrydifferent kindsoffood,andinvestigatethefly’sfeeding preferencesorhowmuchitneedstofeedon,etc. Seeinganinsectfeedcreatesanactivelearning atmosphereintheclassroom,whichcanthenbe followedupwithanatomicaldetailsunderthe microscope. FliesinScienceClassrooms Thehousefly,nodoubt,willcontinuetobetheone thatstudentswillencountermostoftenintheir lessons.Whynotmakeitinterestingtoteacha lessononthemouthpartsofaflyinadifferent way?Mouthpartsareforfeeding,andwhatbetter waytolearnaboutthemthantoactuallyseea flyfeeding. Conclusion Howdoesonedothis?Tobeginwith,onewould, ofcourse,needalivefly.And,manipulatinga smallflycanbeatrickyaffair!Butwithalittlebit ofpractice,youshouldbefine!It’sonlyfairto mentionthatthisinvestigationcallsforalotof patienceandtime,butiswellworththetime spentindoingit,forIassureyouthatalotmore thanhowaflydetectsorfeedsislearntthrough suchactivities.Forexample,thisinvestigationwill showthatfliestastewiththeirfeet! Thisisbutasmallintroductiontoafewfamiliesof fliesthatmaybefoundmorecommonlyinour humanenvironments,andarebigenoughtobe recognised.Morethan1,60,000speciesofflies, andstillcounting-makesmeagreewithNash, whenhesays: Godinhiswisdom Madethefly Andthenforgot Totelluswhy Leavesomeoverripebananaoramangoaround, andverysoonyouwillseemanyhouseflies payingthemavisit.Useasmallteastrainerora moistclothtotrapafewoftheseflies,andstore I WONDER... –OgdenNash 8 4.Courtshipinlong-leggedflies (Diptera:Dolichopodidae):functionand evolutionofsignals.MartinZimmer,Olaf Diestelhorst,andKlausLunau.Behavioral Ecology,Vol.14,No.4:526–530.URL: http://beheco.oxfordjournals.org/content/14/4 /526.full.pdf References 1.Oneproboscis,twotasks:Adaptationstobloodfeedingandnectar-extractinginlong-proboscid horseflies(Tabanidae,Philoliche).Karolyia Florianetal.ArthropodStructure& Development,Vol.43:Issue5,Sept2014:403413. 5.RobberFlies(Asilidae).FritzGeller-Grimm, TorstenDikow&RobertJ.Lavigne.URL: http://www.geller-grimm.de/asilidae.htm. 2.Theuseofinsectsinforensicinvestigations:An overviewonthescopeofforensicentomology. Josephetal.JournalofForensicDentalSciences, Vol.3(2);Jul-Dec2011:89-91.URL: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC32963 82/ 6.OccurrenceofBlackSoldierFlyHermetia illucens(Diptera:Stratiomyidae)in Biocompost.GujarathiGayatriR.andPejaver MadhuriK.ResearchJournalofRecent Sciences,Vol.2(4),April(2013):65-66.URL: http://www.isca.in/rjrs/archive/v2/i4/9.ISCARJRS-2012-469.pdf. 3.Lordsoftheflies:theinsectdetectives.Jon Henley.TheGuardian:ForensicScience.Sep23, 2010.URL: http://www.theguardian.com/science/2010/se p/23/flies-murder-natural-history-museum. 7.Blacksoldierflyfarming.URL: http://www.blacksoldierflyfarming.com/. GeethaIyerisanAuthorandIndependentconsultantworkinginthetwinfieldsofEducationand Environment.Shehaswrittenextensivelyontopicsineducation,environmentandNaturalHistory. [email protected] 9 MAGAZINE SUBHEAD