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Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/palaeo
Pyrite morphology and redox fluctuations recorded in the Ediacaran
Doushantuo Formation
Lin Wang a, Xiaoying Shi a, b,⁎, Ganqing Jiang c
a
b
c
School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China
State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, Beijing 100083, China
Department of Geoscience, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV 89154-4010, USA
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 28 December 2011
Received in revised form 20 March 2012
Accepted 23 March 2012
Available online 30 March 2012
Keywords:
Ediacaran
Euxinic ocean
Doushantuo Formation
Framboidal pyrites
South China
a b s t r a c t
Recent geochemical studies of the Doushantuo Formation (ca. 635–551 Ma) in South China suggested that
the Ediacaran ocean was strongly stratified, with an oxic surface layer above a euxinic wedge that was
sandwiched within ferruginous deep waters. This ocean redox model, however, was derived largely from the
data obtained from stratigraphic sections in the Yangtze Gorges area that, according to recent
paleogeographic reconstruction, were deposited in a restricted intrashelf lagoon. In order to test the redox
conditions in open-ocean, deep-water environments, we have conducted a detailed morphological analysis of
authigenic pyrites from the upper to lower slope sections of the Doushantuo Formation. In analogy to modern
euxinic basins such as the Black Sea, framboidal pyrites with smaller and less variable size distribution are
taken as evidence for sulfide precipitation in euxinic water column, while larger and more variable
framboidal and euhedral pyrites are formed or diagenetically altered in sediments with an overlying oxic/
dysoxic water column. Except for a few brief intervals, pyrites from the Doushantuo Formation in upper slope
sections (Siduping and Taoying sections) are mainly of early diagenetic origin and do not record water
column euxinia during deposition. In contrast, pyrites from the Doushantuo Formation in the lower slope
section (Wuhe section) are dominated by fine-grained framboids indicative of pervasive water column
euxinia below chemocline. In both upper and lower slope sections, temporal changes in genetic pyrite types
occur at centimeter to decameter scales, suggesting frequent chemocline fluctuations. The overall decrease in
abundance of framboidal pyrites toward the upper Doushantuo Formation in upper slope sections suggests
increasing water column oxygenation and deepening of the chemocline. Macroalgae and metazoan fossils are
found mainly from shale intervals without syngenetic pyrites in upper slope sections, indicating the
sensitivity of macroscopic eukaryotes to the ocean chemocline. The redox fluctuations recorded by the
Doushantuo pyrites compels for comprehensive geochemical data in deep-water successions to further test
the existing paleoceanographic models of the Ediacaran ocean.
© 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The Ediacaran Period (635–542 Ma) was a critical time interval in
earth history that witnessed significant changes in biotic evolution,
global climate and ocean chemistry. Large negative carbon isotope
anomalies with magnitudes greater than 10‰ have been reported
from its sedimentary successions, indicating major perturbations of
the global carbon cycle (e.g., Kaufman and Knoll, 1995; Calver, 2000;
Halverson et al., 2005, 2010; Fike et al., 2006; Jiang et al., 2007, 2008,
2011; Zhou and Xiao, 2007; Zhu et al., 2007, in press; McFadden et al.,
2008; Wang and Shi, 2009). Highly variable sulfur isotopes and low
sulfate–sulfide sulfur isotope fractionation (Δδ 34S) suggest that
⁎ Corresponding author at: School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University
of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China.
E-mail address: [email protected] (X. Shi).
0031-0182/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.03.033
sulfate concentration in Ediacaran ocean seawater may have been
much lower than in the modern ocean (~ 28 mmol/L or mM) (Anbar
and Konll, 2002; Kah et al., 2004; Hurtgen et al., 2005, 2006; Fike et
al., 2006; Halverson and Hurtgen, 2007; McFadden et al., 2008;
Halverson et al., 2010), although the marine sulfate reservoir may
have increased significantly during the latest Ediacaran Period. This
period also records the earliest macroscopic metazoan fossils in earth
history (Xiao et al., 1998; Xiao and Knoll, 2000; Knoll et al., 2006; Yin
et al., 2007; Yuan et al., 2009, 2011). It is generally believed that
Ediacaran biological innovations and ocean chemical changes were
closely related to the oxidation of earth's surface environments
(Hurtgen et al., 2005; Fike et al., 2006; Canfield et al., 2007, 2008;
Halverson and Hurtgen, 2007; Kaufman et al., 2007; McFadden et al.,
2008; Scott et al., 2008; Shen et al., 2008; Lyons et al., 2009; Wang
and Shi, 2009; Halverson et al., 2010; Jiang et al., 2010), but the casual
link among these events remains controversial and requires additional data from individual sedimentary basins.
L. Wang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 333 (2012) 218–227
The Doushantuo Formation (ca. 635–551 Ma) in South China plays
important roles in understanding the Ediacaran ocean redox evolution and its relationship with biotic changes owing to its wellpreserved fossils, relatively good age constraints, and preservation of
shelf-basin sedimentary sections (Jiang et al., 2011; and references
cited therein). Recent geochemical studies from this formation
suggested that the Ediacaran ocean was strongly stratified, with an
oxic surface layer resting above a euxinic wedge that was sandwiched
within ferruginous deep waters (Li et al., 2010). This model provides
a conceptual framework for the Ediacaran ocean redox conditions,
but existing data were mainly obtained from the inner and outer shelf
sections that, according to the new paleogeographic reconstruction,
may have been deposited in an intrashelf lagoon (Jiang et al., 2011;
Xiao et al., 2012; Zhu et al., in press). Thus, further study is needed to
test this model in the open ocean, deep-water successions.
The morphology and size distribution of pyrites have proven to be
an effective tool for understanding the water-column redox conditions in modern and ancient sedimentary basins (e.g., Raiswell, 1982;
Wilkin et al., 1996, 1997; Wignall and Newton, 1998; Wilkin and
Arthur, 2001). In modern euxinic sediments, less than 4% of pyrite
framboids are >10 μm; while in non-euxinic sediments, more than
10% of pyrite framboids are >10 μm (Wilkin et al., 1996). Diagenetic
processes within sediments would increase the proportion of
euhedral/amorphous pyrites (Wilkin et al., 1996, 1997; Wignall and
Newton, 1998; Wilkin and Arthur, 2001; Wignall et al., 2005, 2010),
but their formation may not significantly change the attributes of the
well-preserved portion of framboidal pyrites (e.g., Wignall and
Newton, 1998). The maximum framboid diameter of pyrites (MFD)
has been also used as a paleoredox proxy. Sediments/sedimentary
rocks deposited from oxic/dysoxic environments usually have greater
MFD than those deposited from euxinic environments (Wilkin et al.,
1996, 1997; Wignall and Newton, 1998; Wilkin and Arthur, 2001;
Nielsen and Shen, 2004; Chang et al., 2009). The validity of using the
size and morphology of pyrites as a paleoredox indicator has been
confirmed by a number of independent tests, including sedimentological, paleontological and geochemical methods (Wignall and
Newton, 1998; Raiswell et al., 2001), and has been successfully
applied in paleoenvironmental analysis (e.g. Nielsen and Shen, 2004;
Wignall et al., 2005, 2010; Shen et al., 2007; Chang et al., 2009; Zhou
and Jiang, 2009; Liao et al., 2010).
In this paper, we report a detailed pyrite morphological study of
the Doushantuo Formation from the open ocean, deep-water (slope)
sections of the Ediacaran Yangtze platform. Using pyrite morphology
and size distribution as redox indicators, we discuss the spatial and
temporal redox variations during the Doushantuo deposition and
their potential influences on the evolution of early metazoans.
2. Geological setting
The Ediacaran Doushantuo Formation in South China was
deposited on a passive continental margin that faced southeast
(Fig. 1A) (Jiang et al., 2003, 2011; Wang and Li, 2003). It overlies the
upper Cryogenian Nantuo Formation and underlies the Ediacaran
Dengying Formation or its chert-dominated correlative units (Liuchapo or Laobao Formation) in deep-water sections (Fig. 1B). The
base and top of the Doushantuo Formation have been dated as ca.
635 Ma and ca. 551 Ma, respectively (Condon et al., 2005; Zhang
et al., 2005).
The Doushantuo Formation started with a widespread, 3–6 m
thick cap carbonate across the basin (Jiang et al., 2006). Shortly after
this marker bed, a shoal complex was developed at the shelf-margin,
which separated the intrashelf lagoon from the open ocean until the
deposition of the lower Dengying Formation (Fig. 1C; Jiang et al.,
2011). In this study, three sections in the open ocean side of the
Ediacaran Yangtze platform were sampled for pyrite morphological
investigations. Their locations are shown in Fig. 1A and C.
219
Among the studied sections, Siduping and Taoying sections are
from the upper slope setting of the Yangtze platform. The Doushantuo
Formation at Siduping mainly consists of carbonates, slump blocks
and olistostromes, while at Taoying it is dominated by dark and black
shales, with subordinate carbonates and olistostromes. The lowerslope Wuhe section consists of mainly black shales with thin
carbonate interbeds and olistostrome layers.
It is worth noting that abundant multicellular algae and Ediacaran
type metazoan fossils have been reported from the top 25 m black
shale interval of the Doushantuo Formation in the Taoying section
(Zhao et al., 2004, 2010; Wang and Wang, 2006; Wang et al., 2007;
Tang et al., 2008; Zhu et al., 2008). The algal fossils share great
similarity with those found in the Miaohe member of the Doushantuo
Formation in the Yangtze Gorges area (Xiao et al., 2002; Zhao et al.,
2010). In addition, Horodyskia (the so called “strings of beads”) and
Palaeopascichnus have been found in the Liuchapo Formation at
Taoying and Siduping in this study, which are identical with those
described from the same formation in eastern Guizhou (Dong et al.,
2008).
3. Samples and methods
For this study, 175 samples were collected from three sections
(Fig. 1A and C). Sampling spacing is decimeter to meter level, which
varies according to the exposure condition and thickness of studied
sections (Table S1). Weathered intervals were avoided during
sampling.
Pyrite morphology was examined in thin sections using optical
microscope and scanning electron microscope (SEM). Diameters of
10,205 framboids in thin sections were measured by eyepiece
micrometer under reflected light mode of an Axio Scope A1 optical
microscope made by Carl Zeiss, Inc. The eyepiece micrometer has a
minimum scale of 1 μm under maximum magnification. Although the
resolution of the microscope is slightly lower than the backscattered
electron microscope used in other related researches, it still meets the
requirement for size distribution analysis of pyrite framboids (down
to 0.1 to 1 μm level).
Thin sections used for framboidal pyrite analysis are mostly
2 × 3 cm in size. Diameters of framboidal pyrites were measured
along several parallel lines across each thin section until a size
population more than 100 is achieved (less than 100 in several
samples due to sparse framboids or smaller thin section size). The
minimal, mean and maximum diameter, the standard deviation of
diameters, the percentage of pyrite framboids with diameter ≥10 μm,
and the proportion of pyrite framboids with infilling feature (microcrystals welded together by secondary pyrites) were calculated from
measured framboidal pyrite population in each sample. We also
estimated the area ratios of framboidal pyrites to all pyrites in our
samples. The analytic results are listed in Table 1.
4. Results
In most samples, disseminated pyrites are randomly distributed in
thin sections (Fig. 2A to C) and occasionally, pyrites form clusters
(of single crystal or framboids) or lenses. Some samples contain
crosscutting secondary veins or cracks that are filled with calcite or
quartz, but the distribution of pyrites shows little relationship with
them. In general, carbonates contain less pyrites than shale and
mudstone (Fig. 2C), but no other differences (i.e., pyrite size and
morphology) are recognizable among lithologies.
Genetic types of pyrites are evaluated and classified by the
morphology and size distribution of framboids. Four genetic types
have been identified and they reflect different forming conditions
(Table 2). A sample could contain more than one pyrite type, but
euhedral and amorphous (Type A) are the most common morphology
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L. Wang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 333 (2012) 218–227
221
Table 1
Size distribution of pyrite framboids in studied sections.
Section
Samples
Height
n
dMin
dMax
dAvg
S.D.
RD
RI
RF
Siduping
08SDP-1-6
08SDP-4-1
08SDP-5-1
08SDP-6-1
08SDP-7-1
08SDP-8-1
08SDP-9-1
08SDP-10-1
08SDP-10-2
08SDP-10-4
08SDP-11-1
08SDP-12-1
08SDP-12-3
08SDP-29-4
08SDP-29-5
08SDP-29-7
08SDP-30-2
08SDP-30-7
08SDP-30-9
08SDP-31-2
08SDP-36-3
WG8.7
09TY-17.8
WG11.7
08WG-3r-2
08WG-4a
WG15.8
WG16.8
08WG-10-2
WH09-3.2
WH09-6.0
WH09-8.6
WH09-9.7
WH09-11.9
WH09-13.0
WH09-24.4
WH09-26.0
WH09-28.0
WH09-28.6
WH09-30.9
WH09-31.1
WH09-35.1
WH09-37.1
WH09-38.0
WH09-40.2
WH09-44.7
WH09-45.2
WH09-47.2
WH09-50.1
WH09-53.4
WH09-56.7
WH09-60.7
WH09-85.7
WH09-86.3
WH09-88.9
WH09-90.1
WH09-92.0
WH09-95.1
WH09-98.3
WH09-100.0
WH09-105.1
WH09-110.7
WH09-118.0
WH09-119.1
WH09-120.0
7.1
15.2
19.1
24.9
26.7
29.5
32.1
35.1
39.2
42.7
45.7
51.7
53.9
115.8
116.9
118.1
125.7
131.1
133.9
138.3
174.2
10.7
12.2
16.7
16.7
17.4
20.8
21.8
38.3
3.2
6.0
8.6
9.7
11.9
13.0
24.4
26.0
28.0
28.6
30.9
31.1
35.1
37.1
38.0
40.2
44.7
45.2
47.2
50.1
53.4
56.7
60.7
85.7
86.3
88.9
90.1
92.0
95.1
98.3
100.0
105.1
110.7
118.0
119.1
120.0
89
332
136
160
193
242
218
156
215
102
181
115
171
203
122
88
143
103
182
109
187
215
203
143
217
237
168
80
221
162
120
151
172
121
169
153
154
158
163
152
151
148
153
196
160
159
159
160
138
151
136
128
136
152
131
109
142
150
145
135
151
139
108
132
130
3.1
1.3
1.8
3.0
1.8
1.9
1.3
1.6
2.0
1.8
2.2
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.1
3.0
1.5
1.6
2.2
2.3
2.2
2.2
3.2
1.8
2.0
1.5
6.0
6.3
2.0
3.0
2.5
2.2
2.7
2.4
2.5
1.9
2.3
2.0
2.4
1.9
1.9
2.3
2.0
2.0
1.9
2.0
1.5
2.2
2.2
1.5
1.6
2.5
2.3
2.0
2.2
3.0
1.9
2.0
2.2
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.0
2.1
2.2
16.5
18.8
20.5
19.0
11.0
19.0
7.8
12.0
13.0
13.3
8.5
9.0
9.1
10.3
11.0
11.8
12.0
21.9
11.0
13.2
21.3
13.0
16.0
34.1 (17.9)a
14.5
13.5
50.0
41.5
14.0
10.7
16.9
10.3
10.6
8.3
8.2
11.1
20.9
14.2
17.6
13.5
14.0
16.0
14.7
16.0
18.0
15.1
17.0
11.6
15.1
15.5
18.5
15.8
18.2
9.0
11.0
17.1
15.0
13.0
13.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
9.0
9.0
10.0
6.5
4.6
5.9
7.8
4.8
5.2
3.4
3.7
4.8
4.6
5.1
4.2
3.7
6.1
5.1
5.8
7.2
8.5
5.8
4.8
6.7
5.5
6.5
4.4
4.8
5.6
20.4
15.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.0
6.0
5.2
5.6
5.8
7.4
5.7
6.0
5.3
6.1
5.8
5.0
5.3
5.4
4.9
5.4
4.8
5.1
5.3
5.1
5.4
5.6
5.0
5.2
6.9
5.5
5.1
4.9
4.7
4.8
5.5
5.0
4.7
4.6
2.5
1.7
2.7
2.9
1.6
2.4
1.0
1.3
1.9
2.0
1.3
1.5
1.2
1.9
1.7
1.8
2.2
2.3
1.7
1.6
3.0
1.9
1.7
3.1(1.9)a
1.6
1.9
9.4
4.1
1.9
1.3
2.1
1.3
1.5
1.1
1.2
1.6
3.1
2.2
2.6
2.1
2.6
2.3
1.8
2.4
2.4
2.0
2.2
1.7
1.9
2.4
1.8
2.0
2.5
1.5
1.7
3.0
2.4
1.8
1.5
1.2
1.9
2.3
1.3
1.5
1.4
11.2%
0.6%
8.8%
18.1%
0.5%
4.6%
0.0%
0.6%
3.7%
2.9%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
3.5%
2.5%
3.4%
14.7%
33.0%
1.7%
1.8%
11.2%
2.8%
3.5%
2.8%
1.4%
3.0%
94.1%
96.3%
3.6%
1.2%
5.0%
0.7%
0.6%
0.0%
0.0%
2.0%
20.1%
5.7%
11.7%
5.3%
11.3%
6.8%
1.3%
6.1%
6.3%
3.8%
1.9%
2.5%
2.2%
3.3%
0.7%
3.9%
5.9%
0.0%
1.5%
19.3%
6.3%
1.3%
0.7%
0.7%
3.3%
3.6%
0.0%
0.0%
0.8%
67.4%
100.0%
68.9%
81.3%
81.9%
92.1%
74.4%
61.3%
91.6%
82.6%
72.4%
41.8%
40.9%
92.1%
95.1%
87.5%
97.9%
99.0%
100.0%
94.5%
–
64.7%
17.7%
93.7%
77.4%
54.8%
99.4%
100.0%
48.4%
9.3%
50.0%
22.5%
12.2%
15.7%
18.3%
68.0%
26.6%
32.9%
30.1%
71.7%
48.3%
47.3%
46.4%
48.0%
43.1%
57.9%
58.5%
59.4%
54.4%
30.5%
71.3%
60.2%
61.0%
82.9%
62.6%
70.6%
49.3%
50.0%
66.2%
61.9%
51.7%
71.9%
25.0%
39.4%
93.1%
3.6%
15.0%
23.3%
3.6%
4.2%
37.3%
25.8%
14.0%
29.6%
4.4%
9.9%
16.1%
9.1%
11.0%
18.2%
13.8%
11.8%
3.7%
36.4%
30.3%
72.5%
12.7%
43.3%
0.9%
21.8%
52.9%
46.6%
49.4%
40.4%
24.9%
24.5%
32.5%
61.5%
31.1%
36.0%
46.4%
43.5%
31.2%
41.0%
16.6%
28.4%
31.6%
25.9%
28.1%
37.1%
38.2%
29.5%
32.9%
39.9%
37.1%
18.0%
32.3%
35.3%
50.0%
33.4%
13.4%
26.0%
41.1%
30.0%
24.9%
34.7%
17.0%
5.4%
6.5%
2.5%
Taoying
Wuhe
Notes: 1. “Height” in the table refers to the distance of the sampling level to the base of the Doushantuo Formation, measured in meters. 2. “n” refers to the number of framboidal
pyrites analyzed. 3. “dMin”, “dMax” and “dAvg” refer to the minimal, maximal and average value of the diameter of framboidal pyrites, measured in μm. 4. S.D. refers to standard
deviation of framboid diameters. 5. “RD” refers to the percentage of pyrite framboids with diameter ≥10 μm in the total pyrite framboids. “RI” refers to the proportion of infilled
pyrite framboids to total framboids, “–” means that RI can not be obtained from the sample due to oxidation of pyrite. “RF” refers to the area ratio of pyrite framboids to all pyrites.
a
The number in brackets is the calculated results when excluded the exceptionally large diagenetic framboidal pyrites in WG11.7 (see supplementary Table S1).
Fig. 1. (A) Paleogeographic reconstruction during the deposition of the Doushantuo Formation, with study sections marked (after Jiang et al., 2011). (B) Summary of the late
Neoproterozoic stratigraphic units in the Nanhua basin in South China, with major age constraints and marker beds for shelf-to-basin correlation (after Jiang et al., 2007, 2011).
(C) Shelf-to-basin transect with section numbers matching those in (A). Modified from Jiang et al. (2007, 2011) and Ader et al. (2009). Filled circles and triangles in (A) and
(C) indicate sections for this study.
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L. Wang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 333 (2012) 218–227
Fig. 2. Microscopic features of pyrites from the Doushantuo Formation. (A) Black shale sample from the lower slope Wuhe section, rich in framboidal pyrites. (B) Black shale sample
from the upper slope Taoying section. Framboidal pyrites are less abundant and usually less well-preserved compared to the lower slope section. (C) Carbonate sample from the
upper slope Siduping section. Both framboidal and non-framboidal pyrites are less abundant than in the lower slope shale samples. (D) Black shale sample from the Wuhe section. A
euhedral pyrite grows on a framboidal pyrite, but the later can still be identified. The framboidal pyrite also show secondary infilling feature, which occurs at the surface of
microcrystals and welds them together. The secondary growth, however, did not change the overall size of the framboids significantly. (E) A ~ 3 mm layer dominated by large
euhedral and amorphous pyrites in a black shale sample from the Taoying section. Pyrite-rich and pyrite-poor layers alternate at millimeter scale, possibly recording frequent redox
fluctuations. (F) SEM image of a euhedral pyrite crystal from the Taoying section. Abbreviations: N-non-framboidal pyrite, F-Framboidal pyrite.
across the sections (Table S1). Framboidal pyrites (Type B, C and D)
commonly coexist with non-framboidal pyrites (Table S1) and often
show variable levels of infilling (Table 1; Fig. 2D).
The size distribution of type C and D pyrites resembles
syngenetic pyrite precipitated from euxinic water column. Samples
with these pyrite types were likely deposited under euxinic water
column (or at least periodic euxinic bottom water), they were found
in dispersed intervals separated by shale and carbonates (vary from
b1 m to > 10 m in thickness) that contain only diagenetic pyrites
(type A and B) or negligible pyrites. The thickness of a single
Table 2
Genetic types of pyrites of the Doushantuo Formation.
Genetic Morphology
types
Proportion of framboids Mean diameter S.D.a
(≥ 10 μm)
(μm)
Type A
Euhedral and amorphous –
–
Type B
Framboidal
>10%
6.0–20.4
Type C
Framboidal
4.6%–6.8%
5.2–5.8
Type D
Framboidal
b4%
3.4–6.5
–
MFDb
(μm)
Environmental interpretation
–
Diagenetic pyrites formed within sediments. Forms slowly at saturation
levels below those of Fe monosulfides
2.2–9.4 12–50
Diagenetic pyrites formed within sediments, with overlying oxic/dysoxic
water column. Form in pore waters highly supersaturated with respect to
both Fe monosulfide and pyrite
2.1–2.4 13.5–19 Mixture of syngenetic/diagenetic pyrites. Overlying water column likely
shift ephemerally between dysoxic and euxinic.
1.0–2.4 7.8–18.8 Syngenetic pyrites precipitated from euxinic water column
Note: There are two samples (WG11.7 and 08SDP-5-1) contain framboidal pyrites that can not be simply classified by the standard above. Their genetic types are decided separately
(see supplementary Table S1).
a
S.D. = Standard deviation of framboid diameters.
b
MFD = Maximum framboid diameter of pyrites.
L. Wang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 333 (2012) 218–227
syngenetic pyrite interval varies from less than 1 meter to tens of
meters (Fig. 3).
The temporal distribution of syngenetic pyrites varies among
sections. In the upper-slope Siduping section (Fig. 3A), syngenetic
pyrites mainly appear in two discrete intervals: the first 50 m
following the Doushantuo cap carbonate and a 30-m-thick interval
in the upper Doushantuo Formation. In the upper-slope Taoying
section (Fig. 3B), syngenetic pyrites appear mostly in the lower half of
the Doushantuo Formation, and their abundance decreases significantly in the upper half of the formation. Black shales that host
multicellular algae and metazoan fossils in this section contain only
diagenetic pyrites or no pyrites (Fig. 3B). In the lower-slope Wuhe
section (Fig. 3C), the majority of the Doushantuo Formation samples
contain syngenetic pyrites. Discrete intervals include the basal
Doushantuo Formation (5–15 m), the lower-middle Doushantuo
Formation (23–64 m), and the upper Doushantuo Formation
(85–120 m). In general, framboidal pyrites indicative of euxinic
water column pyrite precipitation in the upper slope sections are
much less abundant than those in the lower slope section, indicating
more pervasive euxinia in the deep-water section.
223
5. Discussion
5.1. Framboidal pyrites as a paleoredox indicator
The common occurrence of euhedral/amorphous pyrites (type A
in Table 2) in most Doushantuo samples indicates diagenetic
alteration and challenges the reliability of using pyrite morphology
and size distribution as a paleoredox indicator. In modern euxinic
basins such as the Black Sea, the majority of pyrites are fine-grained
(b10 μm) framboids precipitated from the euxinic water column and
they have undergone negligible secondary growth within sediments
(Calvert et al., 1996; Wilkin et al., 1996; Wilkin and Arthur, 2001). In
ancient sedimentary successions, however, pyrites inevitably underwent some degree of diagenetic alteration and the coexistence of
primary and secondary pyrites would be expected. To prove the
validity of using the preserved portion of framboidal pyrites as a
paleoredox indicator, Wignall and Newton (1998) studied the British
Jurassic black shales and found that, although framboidal pyrites coexist
with a large proportion of non-framboidal pyrites, the size distribution
of framboidal pyrites matches well with paleoecologically-determined
Fig. 3. Stratigraphic distribution of pyrite morphology and mean diameter of framboidal pyrites in the Doushantuo Formation. (A) Siduping section (upper slope). (B) Taoying
section (upper slope). (C) Wuhe section (lower slope). Scale in X-axis of pyrite morphology diagram indicates the combinations of pyrite types (Table 2). 0 — samples with
negligible pyrites; 1 — samples with type A pyrites only; 2 — samples with type A and B pyrites; 3 — samples with type A and type C/D pyrites. Type C and D pyrites are taken as
evidence for euxinic bottom waters during the Doushantuo deposition. Dark gray band in each of the mean diameter diagrams marks diameter range of the syngenetic framboidal
pyrites. The black dots adjacent to the lithological column show the sampling horizons.
224
L. Wang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 333 (2012) 218–227
biofacies. They concluded that pyrite framboids, when they are present,
could preserve information of original depositional environments
through diagenetic processes.
In the Doushantuo Formation, a large proportion of framboidal
pyrites exhibit the so called “infilling feature” as described in previous
study (e.g., Wilkin et al., 1996), which may indicate diagenetic
alteration of these framboids. In order to evaluate its effect on the size
distribution analysis, we calculate the mean diameter of framboids
with and without secondary infilling feature separately. For Type C
and D pyrites, the mean diameter of all infilled framboids (5.2 μm) is a
little larger than unfilled ones (5.1 μm), but the difference is negligible
and would not have significant effect on the size distribution analysis.
Therefore, we think that it is valid to use the size and morphology of
well-preserved framboidal pyrites as a paleoredox indicator for the
Doushantuo Formation (cf., Wilkin et al., 1996; Wignall and Newton,
1998).
The coexistence of primary and secondary pyrites in the
Doushantuo samples, however, indicates that cautions should be
taken when geochemical analyses such as iron speciation (DOP and
FePY/FeHR) are used to evaluate the depositional redox conditions of
sedimentary rocks. Because intensive diagenetic pyrite formation
within sediments under non-euxinic water column may significantly
increase DOP and FePY/FeHR values, it may mistakenly identify euxinic
water column conditions. For example, in the modern Achterwasser
lagoon in southwest Baltic Sea (Neumann et al., 2005) and oxic shelf
region of the Black Sea (Wijsman et al., 2001), high DOP values reflect
pore water rather than water column redox conditions because of the
formation of secondary pyrites. While FePY/FeHR ratio in sediments
remains as an important proxy for water-column euxinia, it is better
to be used in combination with other methods such as the analysis of
pyrite size and morphology.
5.2. Deep-water euxinia in the Ediacaran Nanhua basin
If framboidal pyrites from the Doushantuo Formation record
water column euxinia, their spatial distribution (Fig. 3) provides
insights to the redox structure of the Ediacaran Nanhua basin (and
the Ediacaran ocean). In a recent redox model, Li et al. (2010)
proposed that the deep-water environments in the Nanhua basin
were largely ferruginous, with a dynamic wedge of euxinic water
resting on the shelf (Fig. 4A), which is similar to the redox structures
characteristic of late Archean to early Neoproterozoic oceans
(Reinhard et al., 2009; Johnston et al., 2010; Kendall et al., 2010;
Poulton et al., 2010; Poulton and Canfield, 2011). This model was
derived from the geochemical data from the inner shelf section in the
Yangtze Gorges area (i.e., the Jiulongwan section), the outer shelf
section (Zhongling section), and two poorly sampled deep-water
sections (Mingle and Longe sections). The dominance of framboidal
pyrites in the lower-slope Wuhe section, however, suggests that the
deep-water environments were largely euxinic.
Does the deep-water euxinia represented by the Wuhe section
record the extension of the euxinic wedge to the lower slope
environment? In Li et al. (2010), euxinic intervals were mainly
documented from the inner shelf section in the Yangtze Gorges area
(Fig. 5) and the outer shelf Zhongling section (and basinward) recorded
largely ferruginous water-column conditions. Thus the proposed
euxinic wedge did not reach the shelf margin (Fig. 4A). The spatial
distribution of framboidal pyrites among the upper and lower slope
sections (Fig. 3) does not support a continuous shelf-to-slope euxinic
wedge as well. A more plausible interpretation, which is consistent with
the recent paleogeographic reconstruction of the Nanhua basin, is that
the euxinic intervals from the Yangtze Gorges area (Li et al., 2010)
recorded the redox structure of a restricted intrashelf lagoon (Jiang
et al., 2011; Xiao et al., 2012), while the upper-lower slope sections
(Fig. 3) document the redox changes in the open-ocean side of the
Nanhua basin (Fig. 4B and C). The spatial distribution of deep-water
Fig. 4. Alternative redox models for the Ediacaran Nanhua basin. (A) The stratified
redox model in Li et al. (2010). In this model, a euxinic wedge was thought to have
rested on the shelf north of the Zhongling section and the deep basin (ocean) was
largely ferruginous. (B) Preferred redox model for the Ediacaran Nanhua basin based
on the recent paleogeographic reconstruction of the Nanhua basin (Jiang et al., 2011;
Xiao et al., 2012; Zhu et al., in press) and the distribution of framboidal pyrites
indicative of euxinic bottom waters (Fig. 3). (C) Alternative redox model for the
Nanhua basin assuming that the lower slope Wuhe section recorded a deep-water
euxinic wedge.
euxinia toward the basin, however, is uncertain. One possibility is that
the deep ocean below the lower-slope environment was largely euxinic,
with a chemocline located between the upper and lower slope (Fig. 4B).
Episodic expansion of euxinic water to the upper slope environments
resulted in deposition of framboidal pyrites in shallower water, upper
slope sections. Another scenario could be a euxinic wedge covering the
lower slope water depth sandwiched in deep ferruginous waters, which
is similar to the redox framework proposed by Li et al. (2010) but
occurred in the open-ocean side of the basin (Fig. 4C). The euxinic
wedge in this model (Fig. 4C), however, may be difficult to maintain due
to the lack of sulfate supply from the continental source, unless the
water column above the euxinic wedge was largely oxic rather than
ferruginous. A more comprehensive geochemical study in deep-water
sections is required to test these hypotheses.
5.3. Redox fluctuations
Another important aspect of the syngenetic framboidal pyrites
from the Doushantuo Formation is their temporal variation (Fig. 3). In
each section, euxinia-dominated intervals are separated by submeterto decameter-scale non-euxinic carbonate and shales. These temporal
variations indicate that temporal redox fluctuations in the Nanhua
basin and potentially, in the Ediacaran ocean may have been much
more frequent than previously thought (e.g., Jiang et al., 2007; Li
et al., 2010).
In the lower slope Wuhe section (Fig. 3C), framboidal pyrites
appear mainly at three discrete intervals at the basal, lower, and
upper Doushantuo Formation. Previous geochemical studies from the
Jiulongwan sections in the Yangtze Gorges area have shown three
euxinic intervals at approximately the same stratigraphic level
L. Wang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 333 (2012) 218–227
Fig. 5. Stratigraphic distribution of major fossil groups and geochemical changes of the Doushantuo Formation in the Yangtze Gorges area. (A) Stratal column of the Doushantuo Formation at the Jiulongwan section, showing the four
members (marked with I, II, III, IV) and major age constraints (after Li et al., 2010). (B) δ13 Ccarb excursion (after McFadden et al., 2008). EN1, 2, 3 mark the negative δ13 C excursions and EP1, 2 mark the intervals with highly positive δ13 C.
(C) Iron speciation FeHR/FeT and FePY/FeHR data (after Li et al., 2010). (D) Variation of Mo and Mo/TOC (White and gray squares are from Scott et al., 2008. Cycles and triangles are from Li et al., 2010). (E) Variation of Δδ34SCAS-Py values (after
McFadden et al., 2008). (F) Integrated temporal distribution of major fossil groups of the Doushantuo Formation. I — Acanthomorphic acritarchs (compiled from the data of Yin et al., 2007; McFadden et al., 2008, 2009). II — Multicellular algae
(compiled from the data of Zhao et al., 2004; Wang and Wang, 2006; Wang et al., 2007; McFadden et al., 2008; Yuan et al., 2011). III — Metazoan embryos (compiled from the data of Xiao et al., 1998; Xiao and Knoll, 2000; Yin et al., 2007;
McFadden et al., 2008, 2009). IV — Macroscopic metazoan (compiled from the data of Tang et al., 2008; Zhu et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2010; Zhao et al., 2010). Sections represented by numbers in (F): 1 — Xiaofeng section, Hubei; 2 — Sixi section,
Hubei; 3 — Wangfenggang section, Hubei; 4 — Tianjiayuanzi section, Hubei; 5 — Jiulongwan section, Hubei; 6 — Zhancunping section, Hubei; 7 — Miaohe section, Hubei; 8 — Niuping section, Hubei; 9 — Weng'an section, Guizhou; 10 — Taoying
section, Guizhou; 11 — Lantian section, Anhui. Gray bands show the proposed euxinic intervals by Li et al. (2010).
225
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L. Wang et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 333 (2012) 218–227
(Fig. 5). Although a precise correlation of these euxinic intervals
across the basin needs additional age constraints, it is possible that
the occurrence and disappearance of euxinic intervals in Jiulongwan
and Wuhe sections record at least basin-scale events, because these
two sections were located at very different geographic position.
Euxinic intervals from the Jiulongwan section roughly match the
three negative δ 13C excursions (Fig. 5) that have been interpreted
as resulting from pulsed oxidation of the Ediacaran ocean (McFadden
et al., 2008). There is a potential casual link among euxinia, negative
δ 13C excursion, and ocean oxidation, which requires further geochemical analyses in deep-water sections. The lack of three distinctive euxinic intervals in the upper slope sections (Fig. 3) suggests that
these sections may have been located in transient redox conditions
episodically emerged below the chemocline (e.g., Fig. 4B). These
regions may have been affected by chemocline fluctuations more
frequently than Jiulongwan and Wuhe sections (e.g., Fig. 4B).
5.4. Redox fluctuations and Ediacaran biotas
In Jiulongwan section, most of the documented fossil groups are
from non-euxinic intervals (Fig. 5; McFadden et al., 2008, 2009; Li
et al., 2010), implying that water column euxinia had a strong
influence on the organisms, especially for eukaryotes. However,
fossils have been also reported from intervals with high FePY/FeHR
values indicative of euxinic bottom waters. For example, in the first
euxinic interval of the lower Doushantuo Formation at Jiulongwan,
abundant acritarch fossils were documented (McFadden et al., 2008,
2009; Li et al., 2010). In the third euxinic interval, eukaryotic fossils of
the Miaohe biota were found in nearby sections (Xiao et al., 2002).
More recently, morphologically complex eukaryote fossils have been
found from the lower Doushantuo Formation in the deep-water
section in Lantian (Yuan et al., 2011), where iron speciation and
sulfur isotope data suggested anoxic/euxinic conditions (Shen et al.,
2008). The frequent redox fluctuations seen in the slope sections hint
that the organisms may have lived during the non-euxinic short
periods and were killed and preserved during the euxinic periods.
This may imply that the existing geochemical studies have not yet
reached the resolution required to reveal the submeter- to
centimeter-scale redox fluctuations associated with the living and
burial conditions of the Doushantuo organisms.
Impact of euxinic waters may have had the regional control on the
occurrence of the Doushantuo eukaryotic life. In the upper Doushantuo
Formation of the Taoying section, various multicellular algal and
metazoan fossils were found in the interval after syngenetic pyrites
disappeared. While in Wuhe section, where syngenetic pyrites were
well developed up to the upper Doushantuo Formation, no multicellular
algal and metazoan fossils have been found so far. The differences
between the two sections might, to some extent, indicate that
macroscopic eukaryotes could only live in the region above chemocline
where the water column was less frequently intervened with euxinic
conditions.
6. Conclusions
Framboidal pyrites with small and narrow size distribution from
the Doushantuo Formation in South China are taken as evidence for
water column euxinia in the Ediacaran Nanhua basin (and the
Ediacaran ocean). In upper slope sections, framboidal pyrites
indicative of euxinic bottom waters appear only in the lower and
locally in the upper Doushantuo Formation. These euxinic intervals
are separated by submeter to decameter thick, non-euxinic shale and
carbonates. In the lower slope section, framboidal pyrites are much
more abundant and euxinic intervals revealed by pyrite size and
morphology are proportionally thicker than non-euxinic intervals.
The spatial distribution of framboidal pyrites indicates pervasive
deep-water euxinia in the Ediacaran Nanhua basin, in contrast with
the previous redox model that suggested predominantly ferruginous
deep waters. Temporal variations in framboidal pyrites at submeter
scales in individual sections suggest frequent redox fluctuations in
local depositional environments that may have controlled the living
and burial redox conditions for the Doushantuo biotas. Decameterscale euxinic and non-euxinic alternations in the deep-water, lower
slope section are comparable with those from the shelf section in the
Yangtze Gorges area, likely recording basin-wide redox events. The
causal link among euxinia, carbon isotope excursions, and ocean
oxidation, however, remains to be tested with high-resolution and
comprehensive geochemical study in deep-water sections.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (40972022, 40921062), and the Ministry of
Science and Technology of China (2011CB808806). We are grateful to
Dr. Finn Surlyk and two anonymous reviewers for their constructive
comments and suggestions that have improved the paper greatly.
Thanks are given to Hao Xinxin, Tang Dongjie, Wang Xinqiang and
Zhang Mingyuan for their kind assistance in field work.
Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.03.033. These data
include Google maps of the most important areas described in this
article.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at doi:10.
1016/j.palaeo.2012.03.033.
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