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Structural Changes in Bengali–English Bilingual
Verbs through the Exploration of Bengali Films
Tridha Chatterjee
CAS Writing Program, Boston University, 100 Bay State Road, Room 320, Boston, MA 02215, USA;
[email protected]
Academic Editors: Usha Lakshmanan, Osmer Balam and Tej K. Bhatia
Received: 31 October 2015; Accepted: 7 March 2016; Published: 14 April 2016
Abstract: This paper investigates structural changes in the use of Bengali–English bilingual verbs
through the exploration of Bengali film scripts from three decades: the 1970s, 1990s and post-2010.
Previous research has shown that the increase in use of bilingual verbs, especially involving embedded
language lexical verbs with matrix language helping verbs possibly results from increased bilingual
proficiency. Over the past years, the use of English, including code-switching between Indian
languages and English has increased dramatically in Indian society. Given this development, this
paper explores film data to ascertain the extent to which the use of bilingual verbs, closely connected
to code-switching and bilingual speech, has also changed diachronically in Bengali–English speech
and if these changes occur from increased levels of bilingual proficiency. In connection with structural
change, this paper also discusses the sociolinguistic factors that may be related to bilingual verb
use. Results show a massive increase in bilingual verbs in the films post-2010, especially the ones
involving English lexical verbs. Increased use of code-switching may have played a role in these
changes and sociolinguistic factors related to the use of bilingual verbs seem to be less relevant now
as compared to the earlier decades.
Keywords: bilingual complex verbs; language change; code-switching; diachronic investigation; Bengali
1. Introduction
As with many languages around the world, bilingual verbs are a common occurrence in several
South Asian languages. These constructions have been documented in languages, such as Hindi,
Punjabi, Tamil and Bengali [1–7]. In this paper I investigate the use of Bengali–English bilingual verbs
in terms of the changes that these constructions have undergone diachronically. Bilingual verbs in
Bengali–English speech consist of English lexical nouns or verbs that occur alongside Bengali helping
verbs such as do and be. Examples (1) and (2) below illustrate two bilingual verb constructions. In
Example (1), the English lexical verb, renovate is combined with the ‘do’ verb koreche from Bengali,
which acts as a helping verb to integrate the non-native verb in the language. Example (2) is that
of a bilingual verb where an English noun, discussion occurs alongside the helping verb. These
constructions are also referred to as bilingual complex verbs because they have a complex structure.
1.
Ora
park-ta
renovate
3PL
park-CL
renovate
‘They have renovated the park.’
kor-ech-e
do-PFV-3P P
2.
amra
tOkhon
discussion
1PL
then
discussion
‘We were discussing then . . . ’
kor-chi-lam
do-PROG-PST.1P
Languages 2016, 1, 5; doi:10.3390/languages1010005
www.mdpi.com/journal/languages
Languages 2016, 1, 5
2 of 17
Bilingual complex verbs (BCVs) have been the subject of a copious amount of literature not only
because they occur widely in several language pairs across the world (see Backus [8]; Muysken [9,10];
Wichmann and Wohlgemuth [11]; Wohlgemuth [12]), but also because they can shed light on the
bilingual mind and its ability to juggle two or more grammars. This paper therefore investigates
changes in bilingual verbs to get a better understanding of the connection between BCV use and
bilingual proficiency, including code-switching specifically in context of the Bengali–English speech
community in West Bengal, India.
Some scholars, such as Backus [8] have also argued that bilingual complex verbs undergo a
process of grammaticalization of the helping verbs, because they initially have an N + ‘do’ form,
where the lexical element from the embedded language (EL) is a noun, but gradually turn into V + ‘do’
constructions, where the lexical element is a verb. It has also been hypothesized that balanced and
imbalanced bilinguals differ in their use of BCVs, because imbalanced bilinguals (speakers for whom
the native language is more dominant) have more N + ‘do’ structures, while balanced bilinguals
(speakers for whom both languages are on the same footing) tend to use V + ‘do’ structures more.
These differences constitute changes in bilingual speech, because in many matrix languages1 especially
Indian languages, a native verb cannot occur before the helping verb ‘do’ [5]. Therefore, given
that BCVs occur most frequently in bilingual speech, with the increase of bilingualism, specifically
code-switching within a community as well as bilingual proficiency, we expect not just an increased
use of BCVs in general in the bilingual Bengali–English speech community of West Bengal, India but
also specifically the occurrence of more English verbs than nouns in those BCVs.
In the case of Indian society, the use of English and code-switching with English has intensified
greatly over the past decades, including in the Indian media and films, due to factors such as the
advent of technology in the last couple of decades, the spread of a global economy, and the economic
liberalization policies of the Indian government post-1990. Although English has been a part of India’s
linguistic scenario since the eighteenth century, it is only in recent years, with the advent of a global
economy, technological innovations and influences from the Western media that the use of English
in India has witnessed massive growth (e.g., [13,14]). On the other hand, regional Indian languages
such as Bengali and Hindi (among many others) also exist and are widely used. This situation has led
to stable bilingualism among a section of the Indian population, for whom the first language (or the
native language) is an Indian language or languages and the second language is English, by virtue of
being educated in English instruction schools. The state of stable bilingualism is also reflected in the
Indian media and in films, which are produced in great numbers every year, thereby constituting an
abundant source of data that could be used to observe trends in the speech patterns of a community.
With this in view, this paper examines the use of BCVs in Bengali films from three decades, the
1970s, the 1990s and post-2010 to determine possible changes in their structures over the years. The
specific research questions driving this paper are: (1) Is there an increase in BCV use in contemporary
films as opposed to films from the 1970s and 1990s? (2) Are there differences in the distribution of
N + ‘do’ and V + ‘do’ constructions in the films of the three decades? (3) Does the switch to more
V + ‘do’ constructions indicate higher bilingual proficiency? (4) What sociolinguistic factors relate to
the use of BCVs in the films?
The organization of the paper is as follows. In the next section, I present a brief background of
Bengali and the history of English in India both in the past and in contemporary times. In Section 3,
the methodology of this paper is presented including a discussion of the films that were used for this
study as well as a rationale for using the media as a source of data. Section 4 discusses complex verb
structures of monolingual Bengali and then provides a comparison between monolingual complex
verbs and their bilingual counterparts. Section 5 first presents a quantitative and a qualitative analysis
1
The recipient language, which integrates the non-native lexical element.
Languages 2016, 1, 5
3 of 17
of BCV use in the films of the three decades, including a discussion of the findings. Section 6 presents
the conclusion of the paper.
2. Background of Bengali and English Use in India
Bengali is a prominent eastern Indo-Aryan language spoken in India and Bangladesh2 . It is the
official language of the state of West Bengal in India and is used as the main language of communication
within the state. Hindi, which is the most widely spoken indigenous language in India is followed by
Bengali as the second most widely spoken language [15] (pp. 235–236). Bengali has come in contact
with several European languages over the past centuries, including Portuguese, French, Dutch and
English, and of all these languages that have come in contact with Bengali, however, it is with English
that contact has been the most intensive. Contact between Bengali and English dates back more than
three hundred years. English was first introduced to India’s linguistic environment by the traders of
the East India Company following a charter of Queen Elizabeth in 1600 allowing trade with India. It
was the third European language that came to India after Dutch and Portuguese [16]. The language
arrived in Bengal when the East India Company set up its base in the city of Calcutta in 1698 [17]. The
East India Company gained full political control of Bengal in 1784 following which the city of Calcutta
(now the capital of West Bengal and its urban center) became the center of trade and commerce and
the capital of the British administration [18].
English was formally introduced as a medium of instruction in India’s higher education system
in 1835, a policy that continues to this day. As a result, English education saw a major expansion
in the country. Since India’s independence from British rule, English was adopted as the official
language of the country alongside Hindi. After the end of British rule, English has overcome its
primary role as a tool of colonization and is now used in the domains of education, law, government,
science, and technology, media and in inter-personal communication in urban areas. As a result
of English being widely used in the education system (both before and after independence), it has
become a second language for most educated people across urban India. This has led to widespread
bi/multilingualism between English and Indian languages. However, people who are not literate or
who have not been schooled in English, especially those living in rural areas, have little to almost no
knowledge of it. Some sources say that only about five to 10 percent of the Indian population actually
speaks English [19] (p. 791), [20]. Additionally, code-switching between English and Indian languages
is a regular occurrence in the day-to-day speech of English educated bilinguals in India [19].
Even though the use of English in India’s higher education system has lasted for nearly two
hundred years, it has experienced unprecedented growth in the country in the past two decades
following the spread of technology (satellite television, mobile phones and the internet), globalization
and economic liberalization policies introduced by the India government in the 1990s. English has
always been a prestige language in India but in recent years, the need to speak English fluently has
become a prerequisite for any white-collar job. Consequently, the need to maintain a ‘pure’ or unmixed
use of Bengali or for that matter other Indian languages has become less important. Therefore most
urban, English educated speakers, nowadays, either speak English when their jobs demand it or use
code-switching between Bengali and English as a mode of speech in contexts where English is not
required. Given this situation, the increased use of bilingual complex verbs is certainly not unexpected.
The next section presents the methodology that was used to examine the research questions of
this paper.
2
Bengal Province was partitioned to create West and East Bengal in 1905 by the British administration in India. East Bengal
Province became a part of Pakistan in 1947 (when India gained independence and Pakistan was born out of India), and
came to be identified as East Pakistan. In 1971, East Pakistan seceded from Pakistan and became a new country, Bangladesh.
Languages 2016, 1, 5
Languages 2016, 1, 5 3.3. Methodology Methodology
Languages 2016, 1, 5 4 of 17
4 of 17 4 of 17 For the purpose of this paper, I analyze a total of 6 Bengali films from three decades, the 1970s, For
the purpose of this paper, I analyze a total of 6 Bengali films from three decades, the 1970s,
3. Methodology 4 of 17 the 1990s and post‐2010. I examine two films from each decade. I chose to examine films from three the
1990s and post-2010. I examine two films from each decade. I chose to examine films from three
different decades order to aget a diachronic perspective of bilingual verb and of changes
possible For the purpose of this paper, I analyze a total of 6 Bengali films from three decades, the 1970s, different
decades
in in order
to get
diachronic
perspective
of bilingual
verb use
anduse of possible
4 of 17 changes that may have occurred. the 1990s and post‐2010. I examine two films from each decade. I chose to examine films from three that may have occurred.
Like the
the film industry
industry based Mumbai, popularly known verb as Bollywood,
Bollywood, there are several
several different decades in film
order to get a diachronic perspective of bilingual use and of possible nalyze a total of 6 Bengali films from three decades, the 1970s, Like
based
inin Mumbai,
popularly
known
as
there
are
regional language based film industries in India, which produce numerous films every year and changes that may have occurred. wo films from each decade. I chose to examine films from three regional language based film industries in India, which produce numerous films every year and enjoy
Like the of film industry based Mumbai, popularly known film
as Bollywood, there are city
several diachronic perspective bilingual verb use in and of possible f this paper, I analyze a total of 6 Bengali films from three decades, the 1970s, aenjoy a large amount of viewership. Among these, is the Bengali film industry based in the city of large
amount
of viewership.
Among
these,
is the Bengali
industry based
in the
of Kolkata,
Kolkata, sometimes referred to as Tollywood. The films I analyze for this paper were all produced in regional language referred
based film industries in India, which produce for
numerous films every year and in this
10. I examine two films from each decade. I chose to examine films from three sometimes
to as
Tollywood.
The films
I analyze
this paper
were
all produced
this industry within the past forty years and include Chadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], enjoy a large amount of viewership. Among these, is the Bengali film industry based in the city of Mumbai, popularly known as Bollywood, there are several order to get a diachronic perspective of bilingual verb use and of Chadmabeshi
possible (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22],
industry
within
the past
forty
years
and
include
Agantuk (1992) [23], Unishe April (1994) [24], Maach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) Kolkata, sometimes referred to as Tollywood. The films I analyze for this paper were all produced in ries in India, produce numerous films every year and e occurred. which Agantuk
(1992)
[23], Unishe
April
(1994)
[24],
Maach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) [26].
[26]. The films were chosen based on similarities in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of this industry within the past forty years and include Chadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], Among these, is the Bengali film industry based in the city of ustry based in Mumbai, popularly known as Bollywood, are settings
several and subjects. Firstly, the stories of these
The films were chosen based on similaritiesthere in their
these films are all based in the urban areas of West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. Agantuk (1992) [23], Unishe April (1994) [24], Maach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) ywood. The films I analyze for this paper were all produced in ed film industries in India, which produce numerous films every year and narratives of urban characters. Secondly,
films are all based in the urban areas of West Bengal and depict
016, 1, 5 Languages 2016, 1, 5 Languages 2016, 1, 5 4 of 17 4 of 17 4 of 17 4 of 17 Secondly, the ofcharacters of the films typically belong to the same socio‐economic status groups, [26]. The films were chosen based on similarities in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of rs and include Chadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], of viewership. Among these, is the Bengali film industry based in the city of the
characters
the films typically
belong
to the same
socio-economic
status groups, specifically
the
specifically the middle/upper‐middle class. All with
of the films deal with issues of inter‐personal these films are all based in the urban areas of West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. 4) [24], Maach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) ferred to as Tollywood. The films I analyze for this paper were all produced in middle/upper-middle
class. All of the films
deal
issues
of inter-personal
relationships
within
dology 3. Methodology 3. Methodology relationships the family and between lovers touch upon assecondary themes such as Secondly, the characters of the films typically belong to the and same socio‐economic status and
groups, similarities in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of e past forty years and include Chadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], the
family
andwithin between
lovers
and
touch
upon secondary
themes
such
material
intellectual
material and intellectual aspirations in life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. specifically the middle/upper‐middle class. of the
the search
films for
deal with issues The
of inter‐personal areas of West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. nishe April (1994) [24], Maach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) the purpose of this paper, I analyze a total of 6 Bengali films from three decades, the 1970s, this paper, I analyze a total of 6 Bengali films from three decades, the 1970s, For the purpose of this paper, I analyze a total of 6 Bengali films from three decades, the 1970s, For the purpose of this paper, I analyze a total of 6 Bengali films from three decades, the 1970s, aspirations
in life, memories of the
pastAll and
one’s
identity.
films also all belong
The films also all belong to the genre of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they relationships within the family and between lovers and touch upon secondary themes such of
as around
. I examine two films from each decade. I chose to examine films from three typically belong toto the same socio‐economic status groups, hosen based on similarities in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of and post‐2010. I examine two films from each decade. I chose to examine films from three the 1990s and post‐2010. I examine two films from each decade. I chose to examine films from three the 1990s and post‐2010. I examine two films from each decade. I chose to examine films from three the genre of comedy-dramas and have comparable lengths in that they have a run time
have a run time of around two hours. a and material and intellectual aspirations in life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. e class. All of the with issues of inter‐personal d in the urban areas of West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. der decades to different get in a order diachronic decades to films get different in perspective a deal order diachronic decades to get of perspective bilingual a in diachronic order to of get perspective bilingual diachronic bilingual perspective of bilingual verb use verb of of possible use and of verb possible use and of possible verb use and of possible two
hours.
A study by Si [13] reported a diachronic investigation of code‐switching in Bollywood films The films also all belong to the genre of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they between and touch upon secondary themes such as ers of changes that may have occurred. the lovers typically belong to the same socio‐economic status groups, occurred. hat may have occurred. films changes that may have occurred. A study by Si [13] reported a diachronic investigation of code-switching in Bollywood
films from
from three decades, the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall have a run time of around two hours. le/upper‐middle class. All of the films deal with issues of inter‐personal ustry n life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. the film based industry Like in Mumbai, the based film industry popularly in Like Mumbai, the based known film popularly in industry as Mumbai, Bollywood, known based popularly as in there Bollywood, Mumbai, known are several popularly as there Bollywood, are known several there as Bollywood, are several there are several three decades, the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall use of
use of English in the films of this period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It A study by Si [13] reported a diachronic investigation of code‐switching in Bollywood films of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they he family and language between lovers and touch upon secondary themes such as d language film regional industries based film in India, industries regional based film language in produce India, industries which based numerous in produce film India, industries films which numerous every produce in year India, films and numerous which every year films and every numerous year speakers.
and films every year and English
inwhich the
films
of this
period,
specifically
observable
in theproduce speech
of young
It was
was further reported that the code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex from three decades, the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall f viewership. Among these, is the Bengali film industry based in the city of ual aspirations in life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. arge amount of viewership. Among these, is the Bengali film industry based in the city of enjoy a large amount of viewership. Among these, is the Bengali film industry based in the city of enjoy a large amount of viewership. Among these, is the Bengali film industry based in the city of further reported that the code-switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex over the
over Kolkata, sometimes referred to as Tollywood. The films I analyze for this paper were all produced in the code‐switching years more
involving alternations between chunks Hindi as
and English as compared ofto use of English in the films of this period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It iachronic investigation of in more Bollywood films ng to the genre of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they erred to as Tollywood. The films I analyze for this paper were all produced in sometimes referred to as Tollywood. The films I analyze for this paper were all produced in Kolkata, sometimes referred to as Tollywood. The films I analyze for this paper were all produced in years
involving
alternations
between
chunks
of Hindi
andof English
compared
to insertions
insertions of English words in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good was further reported that the code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall und two hours. English
past forty years and include Chadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], stry within the past forty years and include Chadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], this industry within the past forty years and include Chadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], this industry within the past forty years and include Chadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], words in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good illustration of
illustration of how media data can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns over the years involving alternations between chunks of Hindi as compared to od, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It 3] reported a diachronic investigation code‐switching in Bollywood films she April (1994) [24], Maach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) 1992) [23], Unishe April (1994) [24], Maach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) Agantuk (1992) [23], Unishe April (1994) [24], Maach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) Agantuk (1992) [23], Unishe April (1994) [24], Maach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) how
media
data canmore beof used
to ascertain
broad
trends
occurring
inand the English speech patterns
of a community.
of a community. The present study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use insertions of English words in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good witching patterns in these films became increasingly complex he 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall osen based on similarities in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of films were chosen based on similarities in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of [26]. The films were chosen based on similarities in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of [26]. The films were chosen based on similarities in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of The
present
study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use of bilingual verbs
of bilingual verbs over time and makes use of a similar methodology. illustration of how media data can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns ations between chunks of Hindi and English compared to ilms of this period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It ms are all based in the urban areas of West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. in the urban areas of West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. these films are all based in the urban areas of West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. these films are all based in the urban areas of West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. over time and makes
use of aas similar
methodology.
of a community. The present study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use that the code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex , cture of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good s the of the characters Secondly, films typically the of the characters Secondly, films belong typically of to the the the characters films belong to of the the belong films to typically the groups, belong to the same typically socio‐economic same socio‐economic status same socio‐economic status groups, same status socio‐economic groups, status groups, Coding and Data Analysis Coding
and
Data
Analysis
of bilingual verbs over time and makes use of a similar methodology. used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns ng more alternations chunks of Hindi and English as compared to ly /upper‐middle the specifically middle/upper‐middle class. the between middle/upper‐middle All specifically of the class. films the All middle/upper‐middle deal of the class. with films All issues deal of of the with inter‐personal class. films issues All deal of of with inter‐personal the issues films deal of inter‐personal with issues of inter‐personal as a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use words in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good hips e family within relationships and the between family within relationships lovers and the between and family touch within lovers and upon between the and secondary family touch lovers and upon themes and between secondary touch such lovers upon as themes and secondary touch such as themes upon secondary such verbs
as themes such as In the films that were analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + In
the films that were analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex
with the
Coding and Data Analysis es use of a similar methodology. dia data can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns al aspirations in life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. and intellectual aspirations in life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. material and intellectual aspirations in life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. material and intellectual aspirations in life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. form were coded. These included ‘sale do’,
do’, which
which X‘do’ + ‘do’
form
were
coded.
These
includedBengali Bengalicomplex complexverbs verbssuch such as as bikri bikri kkɔra ra ‘sale
present study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use The films also all belong to the genre of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they The films also all belong to the genre of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they s also all belong to the genre of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they g to the genre of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they means to sell. I use the form N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb In the films that were analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + means
to sell. I use the form N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex
time and makes use of a similar methodology. nd two hours. n time of around two hours. have a run time of around two hours. have a run time of around two hours. coded
bilingual verbs that was coded included complex such as, renovate’, which is
is aa ‘do’ form were coded. These included Bengali complex verbs such as bikri kɔra ‘sale do’, which verb
that
was
included
bilingual
complex
verbs
such
as,renovate renovate
kkɔra ra ‘to ‘to
renovate’,
which
or the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + udy reported by Si A a [13] diachronic study reported by Si investigation a [13] diachronic A reported study by of investigation a code‐switching Si diachronic [13] reported of investigation code‐switching in a diachronic Bollywood of code‐switching investigation in films Bollywood of films in code‐switching Bollywood films in Bollywood combination of an English verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. means to sell. I use the form N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb combination
of an English verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. films sis ee decades, the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall from three decades, the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall from three decades, the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall The example discussion kɔra ‘to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from was coded included bilingual complex verbs such as, includes
renovate an
kɔra ‘to renovate’, which a from
ed Bengali that complex verbs such as bikri ‘sale which The
example
discussion
kkɔra ra ‘to
dodo’, discussion’,
which
English
noun and
a ‘do’is verb
ms of this period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It glish in the films of this period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It use of English in the films of this period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It use of English in the films of this period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It Bengali, represented with the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. combination of an English verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb were analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + Bengali,
represented with the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. The
hat the code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex her reported that the code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex was further reported that the code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex was further reported that the code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex The verb was record kɔra record’, which includes lexical
an English The example discussion kɔra ‘to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from omplex verbs such as, fourth renovate kɔra of ‘to complex renovate’, which is a d. These included Bengali complex verbs such as bikri kɔra ‘sale do’, ‘to which fourth
type
oftype complex
verb
was
record
k ra
‘to
record’,
which
includes
an English
elementlexical that
years g more over involving alternations the years more between involving alternations over the chunks more years between of involving Hindi and more between English of both alternations Hindi chunks English of between Hindi and chunks English of Hindi and English as and compared as compared to as Indian
compared to with
as element that could be analyzed as a noun and a to verb (specifically in the context of compared Indian Bengali, represented with the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. form N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb could
be analyzed
asalternations both
achunks noun
and
a verb
(specifically
in
the
context
of
English)
a ‘do’ to ords in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good s of English words in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good insertions of English words in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good insertions of English words in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good English) with a as, ‘do’ verb Bengali, represented with form N/V(Eng)+‘do’. In standard The complex fourth type of such complex verb from was record kɔra ‘to record’, which an English lexical cussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from ded bilingual verbs renovate kɔra ‘to renovate’, which is a the verb
from
Bengali,
represented
with
the
form
N/V(Eng)+‘do’.
In includes standard
varieties
of English,
there
on of how media data can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns ia data can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns illustration of how media data can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns illustration of how media data can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns of English, there is both a where
distinction between récord, the stress the first syllable, element that could be between
analyzed as a noun and a on
verb (specifically in when
the context of Indian N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. lish verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. isvarieties a distinction
récord,
the stress
is
the
firstwhere syllable,
it is is on used
as
a noun
and
munity. The present study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use esent study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use of a community. The present study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use of a community. The present study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use when it is used as a noun and recórd, where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. English) with a which ‘do’ the
verb from Bengali, represented form standard as record kɔra ‘to recórd,
record’, includes an English lexical n kɔra ‘to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from where
stress
is on
the
second
syllable with whenthe used
as aN/V(Eng)+‘do’. verb. However,In such
a distinction
ual verbs over time and makes use of a similar methodology. ime and makes use of a similar methodology. of bilingual verbs over time and makes use of a similar methodology. such a distinction is of
usually not found where
in varieties of usually
Indian English, where stress varieties of English, there is ina distinction between récord, where the stress is on on
the syllable, oth a of bilingual verbs over time and makes use of a similar methodology. noun and a verb (specifically in the context of Indian with the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. isHowever, usually
not
found
varieties
Indian
English,
stress
is
afirst heavy
syllable
andis usually on a heavy syllable and in some cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the when it is used as a noun and recórd, where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. gali, represented with the form N/V(Eng)+‘do’. In standard omplex verb was in
record kɔra ‘to record’, which placed
includes an English lexical some
cases
even
arbitrarily
depending
on the
L1 of the speaker and other sociolinguistic
nd Data Analysis s Coding and Data Analysis Coding and Data Analysis speaker and other sociolinguistic factors e.g., [27]. Therefore, a word like on
record usually always However, a and distinction is usually not found in varieties of Indian English, where stress is ction between récord, where the stress is on the first syllable, analyzed as both a such noun a verb (specifically in the context of Indian factors
e.g.,
[27].
Therefore,
a word
like
record
usually
always
carries
a stress
the second
syllable,
carries a stress on the second syllable, irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. usually on a heavy syllable and in some cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. verb from In the films that were analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + Bengali, represented with the form N/V(Eng)+‘do’. he films that were analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + ere analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + In the films that were analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + irrespective
of whether
it is
being
used as a nounIn orstandard as a verb. The following forms of complex verbs
The following forms of complex verbs were coded and analyzed: N(Beng) + kɔra; V(Eng) kɔra; speaker and other sociolinguistic factors [27]. a as word record usually lly not found in varieties of Indian English, where stress is here is a distinction between récord, where the stress is on the first m These were ‘do’ included coded. form These were Bengali included coded. ‘do’ complex form These Bengali were verbs included coded. complex such Bengali as These verbs included complex as Therefore, Bengali verbs such complex verbs such as bikri kɔra ‘sale bikri do’, kɔra ‘sale bikri do’, kɔra ‘sale do’, bikri which do’, which were
coded
and
analyzed:
N(Beng)
+e.g., ksuch ra;
V(Eng)
+ syllable, kwhich ra;
N(Eng)
+like kwhich ra;
N/V(Eng)
+ kɔra k always ra. ‘sale + N(Eng) + kɔra; N/V(Eng) + kɔra. carries a stress on the second syllable, irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. ome cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the oun and recórd, where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. sell. I use the form N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb orm N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb means to sell. I use the form N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb means to sell. I use the form N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb Following
the coding of the complex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating
Following the coding of the complex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating The following forms of complex verbs were coded and analyzed: V(Eng) ctors e.g., Therefore, a word like record usually always inction is [27]. usually not frequencies
found in bilingual varieties of Indian English, where stress is ofN(Beng) ed coded bilingual that included was complex coded bilingual verbs included that complex was such coded as, verbs renovate included complex such kɔra as, bilingual ‘to verbs renovate renovate’, such complex kɔra as, which ‘to renovate verbs renovate’, is a such kɔra which ‘to as, renovate’, renovate is + a kɔra; kɔra ‘to renovate’, is + a kɔra; which is a the
of
occurrence
of
these
verbs
for
the
films
each
decade
towhich ascertain
the overall
the frequencies of occurrence these verbs the films of
of occurrence
each decade to ascertain the inoverall N(Eng) + kɔra; N/V(Eng) + kɔra. irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. llable and in some cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the ion of an English verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. sh verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. combination of an English verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. combination of an English verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. distribution
of complex
verbs inof the
data.
Thefor frequencies
of complex
verbs
each
distribution of complex verbs in the data. The frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each Following the coding of the complex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating bs were coded and analyzed: N(Beng) + a kɔra; V(Eng) + kɔra; usually always ciolinguistic factors e.g., [27]. Therefore, word like record mple discussion kɔra ‘to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from kɔra ‘to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from The example discussion kɔra ‘to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from The example discussion kɔra ‘to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from the frequencies of occurrence of these verbs for the films of each decade to ascertain the overall second syllable, irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. represented with the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. ith the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. Bengali, represented with the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. Bengali, represented with the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. distribution of complex verbs in the data. The frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each plex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating of verbs were coded analyzed: N(Beng) + kɔra; V(Eng) + an kɔra; mplex th complex type The verb of fourth complex was record type verb of The complex was fourth type verb of was complex verb was kɔra ‘to and record record’, kɔra which ‘to record record’, includes kɔra which an ‘to English record’, includes record lexical which kɔra ‘to English includes record’, lexical an which English includes lexical an English lexical se verbs for the films of each decade to ascertain the overall g) + kɔra. that analyzed could element as be both analyzed that a could noun element as be and both analyzed a that a verb noun could (specifically as and both be a analyzed a verb noun in (specifically the and as context both a verb a in of noun (specifically the Indian context and a verb in of the Indian (specifically context of in Indian the context of Indian data. The frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each ding of the complex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating erb with from English) a ‘do’ Bengali, verb with from represented a ‘do’ English) Bengali, verb with with from represented the a Bengali, ‘do’ form verb with N/V(Eng)+‘do’. represented from the form Bengali, with N/V(Eng)+‘do’. In represented the standard form N/V(Eng)+‘do’. In with standard the form In N/V(Eng)+‘do’. standard In standard Languages 2016, 1, 5
5 of 17
decade were then compared with those of the other decades to find out the changes that have taken
place in the use of bilingual verbs over the years.
4. Complex Verb Constructions in Bengali
In this section I first provide a discussion of the nature of complex verb structures in Bengali and
then focus on the structures as they occur in monolingual Bengali and in bilingual Bengali speech.
Complex verb structures have been shown to occur frequently in Indo-Aryan languages [28–32]
such as, Urdu, Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Gujarati, among others languages in the world. These
structures contain two or more than two elements such as nouns, verbs or adjectives, which together
predicate as a single unit; that is, “their arguments map onto a monoclausal syntactic structure” [30]
(p. 2). Their structure can be of the ‘Noun + Verb’ (N + ‘do’) or ‘Verb + Verb’ (V + V) form, making
them complex structurally but not necessarily so in terms of semantics, as I discuss below. The term
‘complex verb’ is often used to refer to the N + V and V + V structures together because of their
complex structures but separate terms for the individual N + V and V + V structures are also used.
Independently, the N + V structures have been called conjunct verbs [33] and V + V structures are called
compound verbs [32,34,35].
In an N + V structure, the noun is followed by a light verb, such as ‘do’ or ‘be’, which bears
inflections and turns the N + V structure into a single predicate. This is a productive process in
many Indo-Aryan languages where nouns are verbalized with the help of the ‘do’ or ‘be’ verbs. The
V + V structure consists of two or more verbal elements, where the first verb or the main verb in the
construction provides the main semantic content to the construction. This verb is followed by a light
verb that bears inflections, affects the aktionsart of the joint predication and adds, instead of its inherent
lexical meaning, more subtle semantic information such as benefaction, suddenness, volitionality,
forcefulness, etc. (e.g., [29,30,36]). Table 1 below illustrates these constructions. However, in this paper,
I do not deal with the V + V structure and instead focus only on the N + ‘do’ structure because it is the
most frequently used light verb in Bengali–English CS. To do away with the confusion of using several
different terms to refer to these different verbal constructions, I use the term complex verb as a cover
term to refer to the X + do structures examined in this paper.
Table 1. Verbal system of modern Bengali.
Verb Types
Sub Types
Example
Gloss
Translation
1 verb
bOla
speak
‘to speak’
Conjunct verbs
N + kOra/hOwa
N + kOra/hOwa + (V)
bikri kOra
jiggesh kore newa
sale do question
do take
‘to sell’
‘to ask for oneself’
Compound verbs
V+V
khe newa
eat take
‘to eat for oneself’
Conjunct verbs
N (Eng) + kOra/hOwa
N (Eng) + kOra/hOwa + (V)
drawing kOra
manage kore jawa
drawing do
manage do go
‘to draw’
‘to manage
continuously’
Compound verbs
V (Eng) + kOra/hOwa
V (Eng) + kOra/hOwa + (V)
deny kOra decide
kore phæla
deny do decide
do throw
‘to deny’ ‘to decide
(completely)’
Simple Verbs
Monolingual
Complex Verbs
Bilingual
Complex Verbs
Examples of Each Type
Components of Verbs
The verbal system of modern Bengali (both monolingual and bilingual speech) consists of different
types of verbs, including simple and complex ones. The complex verbs can be categorized into two
main types, monolingual verbs and bilingual verbs. The monolingual verbs consist of N + do + (V)
and V + V structures where all the components are from Bengali. The bilingual verbs also consist of
N + do + (V) and V + do structures, but crucially in these verbs the main element that provides the
semantic content to the construction is from English. Table 1 summarizes and provides examples of
these different structures.
Modern Bengali also has single-word verbs, which I call simple verbs (following Thompson [32])
such as khæla ‘play’, or shona ‘hear’ just like in English, an example of which is provided below in (3).
4 of 17 4 of 17 ms e Chadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], belong typically to the belong the same same to socio‐economic socio‐economic status groups, status groups, More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) e April (1994) [24], Maach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) clude Chadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], ke the film industry based in Mumbai, Like the popularly film industry known based as Bollywood, in Mumbai, there popularly are several known as Bollywood, there are several All dle of class. the All films of deal the with issues deal with of India, inter‐personal issues of based inter‐personal en based on similarities in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of ings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of Maach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) al language based film films industries regional in language which produce film numerous industries films in India, every which year produce and numerous films every year and d lovers between and lovers touch upon and touch secondary upon themes secondary such themes as such as n the urban areas of West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. d depict narratives of urban characters. n their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of ies in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of large amount of viewership. Among these, is the Bengali film industry based in the city of enjoy a large amount of viewership. Among these, is the Bengali film industry based in the city of Languages 2016, 1, 5 Languages 2016, 1, 5 6 of 17 6 of 17 s in life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. mories of the past and the search for one’s identity. e of the films typically belong to the same socio‐economic status groups, same socio‐economic status Kolkata, sometimes referred to as Tollywood. The films I analyze for this paper were all produced in groups, West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. a, sometimes referred to as Tollywood. The films I analyze for this paper were all produced in otal of 6 Bengali films from three decades, the 1970s, ali films from three decades, the 1970s, re of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they y‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they ms pper‐middle deal with class. issues All of of inter‐personal the deal with issues of inter‐personal y long belong to the to same the same socio‐economic socio‐economic status groups, groups, dustry within the past forty years and include Chadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], this industry within the past forty years and include Chadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], om each decade. I chose to examine films from three de. I chose to examine films from three Languages
2016,
1, films 5 status 6 of 17
Modern Bengali also has single‐word verbs, which I call simple verbs (following Thompson [32]) Modern Bengali also has single‐word verbs, which I call simple verbs (following Thompson [32]) s. bilingual ouch upon and secondary between lovers themes and such as inter‐personal upon secondary themes such as of All the of the films films deal deal with with issues issues of touch inter‐personal of k (1992) [23], Unishe April (1994) [24], Maach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) Agantuk (1992) [23], Unishe April (1994) [24], Maach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) family perspective of bilingual verb use and verb of possible use and of possible such as khæla ‘play’, or such as khæla ‘play’, or sh
ona ‘hear’ just like in English, an example of which is provided below in (3). sh
ona ‘hear’ just like in English, an example of which is provided below in (3). investigation diachronic investigation of upon code‐switching of code‐switching in Bollywood in Bollywood films films aspirations in life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. past and the search for one’s identity. n ers lovers and and touch touch upon secondary secondary themes themes such such as as he films were chosen based on similarities in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of [26]. The films were chosen based on similarities in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of These
verbs
consist
of
a
single
word denoting an action or a state. Apart from simple verbs, are the
These verbs consist of a single word denoting an action or a state. Apart from simple verbs, are the These verbs consist of a single word denoting an action or a state. Apart from simple verbs, are the s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall . This study found a massive increase in the overall d have comparable lengths in that they to the genre of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they ries of the past and the search for one’s identity. emories of the past and the search for one’s identity. lms are all based in the urban areas of West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. these films are all based in the urban areas of West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. nown popularly as Bollywood, known as there Bollywood, are several there are several complex
verb
structures,
which
arethe discussed
in more
detail below.
complex verb structures, which are discussed in more detail below. eriod, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It ically observable in the speech of young speakers. It two hours. complex verb structures, which are discussed in more detail below. dramas and have comparable lengths in that they dy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they ly, the numerous characters of the films Secondly, typically the belong characters to of the socio‐economic films typically belong groups, to the same socio‐economic status groups, same status oduce ia, which produce films numerous every year films and every year and patterns in these films became increasingly complex ‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex eported of code‐switching diachronic in investigation Bollywood films of code‐switching in theke Bollywood films ally the a middle/upper‐middle class. the of the middle/upper‐middle films deal with por‐ech‐e
issues class. of All inter‐personal of the films deal with issues of inter‐personal ngali film industry based in the city of ese, is the Bengali film industry based in the city of gach
por-ech-e
(simple
verb)
por‐ech‐e
(simple verb) (simple verb) 3. she 3. 3.
she she specifically gach All gach theke
theke rnations ween chunks between of Hindi chunks and of English Hindi and English as compared as to compared to 980s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall ound a massive increase in the overall c estigation investigation of code‐switching of 3SG code‐switching in Bollywood in Bollywood films films nships within the family and relationships between lovers within and the touch family upon and secondary between themes lovers and such touch as upon secondary themes such as he films I analyze for this paper were all produced in yze for this paper were all produced in tree
fall-PFV-3P fall‐PFV‐3P 3SG 3SG
tree tree from from from fall‐PFV‐3P 4 of 17 Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good ructure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good s of this period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It ble in the speech of young speakers. It 0s. This study found a massive increase in the overall his study found a massive increase in the overall al and intellectual aspirations in life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. material and intellectual aspirations in life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. eshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], ude Chadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], ‘He/She
has fallen from the tree.’ (Thompson 2010)
‘He/She has fallen from the tree.’ (Thompson 2010)
‘He/She has fallen from the tree.’ (Thompson 2010)
certain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns e used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns ese films became increasingly complex the code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex lly observable in the speech of young speakers. It ifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It The films also all belong to the genre of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they ms also all belong to the genre of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) ach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) 4.1.
Monolingual
Verbs
ar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use run time of around two hours. more of Hindi alternations and English between chunks of and English as compared as compared to Hindi erns in these films became increasingly complex patterns in these films became increasingly complex have a run time of around two hours. Complex
to ings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of s in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of 4.1. Monolingual Complex Verbs 4.1. Monolingual Complex Verbs Languages 2016, 1, 5 4 of 17 Bengali films from three decades, the 1970s, similar methodology. kes use of a similar methodology. ds in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good s. Therefore, the study serves as a good etween en chunks chunks of [13] Hindi of reported Hindi and and English English as as investigation compared to of study by Si a diachronic A compared study by to Si [13] reported code‐switching a diachronic in Bollywood investigation films of code‐switching in Bollywood films d depict narratives of urban characters. est Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. (N(Beng) + kᴐra/hᴐwa ‘do’/’be’) (N(Beng) + kᴐra/hᴐwa ‘do’/’be’) (N(Beng)
+ k ra/h wa ‘do’/’be’)
decade. I chose to examine films from three data can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns trends occurring in the speech patterns di sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good hree decades, the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall e belong to the same socio‐economic same socio‐economic status from three decades, the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall groups, status groups, 3. Methodology The N + ‘do’/’be’ verbal structures are two‐part and three‐part verbs that occur in addition to The N + ‘do’/’be’ verbal structures are two‐part and three‐part verbs that occur in addition to ive of bilingual verb use and of possible hich is to determine changes in the use ent study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use tain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns scertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns English in the films of this period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It use of English in the films of this period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It ms ll of deal the with films issues deal of with inter‐personal of inter‐personal The
Nissues + ‘do’/’be’
verbal structures are two-part and three-part verbs that occur in addition to
simple verbs in modern Bengali. In these structures, nouns (or adjectives) occur alongside helping simple verbs in modern Bengali. In these structures, nouns (or adjectives) occur alongside helping For the purpose of this paper, I analyze a total of 6 Bengali films from three decades, the 1970s, me and makes use of a similar methodology. odology. lar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use urpose, which is to determine changes in the use rther reported that the code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex was further reported that the code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex ouch lovers upon and secondary touch upon themes secondary such themes as Bengali.
such as for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + er, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + simple
verbs
in
modern
In these structures, nouns (or adjectives) occur alongside helping
verbs such as kᴐra ‘do’ or hɔwa ‘be’. The nouns provide the semantic content to the complex verb and y known as verbs such as kᴐra ‘do’ or hɔwa ‘be’. The nouns provide the semantic content to the complex verb and Bollywood, there are the several the 1990s and post‐2010. I examine two films from each decade. I chose to examine films from three milar methodology. a similar methodology. e years involving more alternations over between years involving chunks of more Hindi alternations and English between chunks of toHindi and English as compared to as compared to mories of the past and the search for one’s identity. past and the search for one’s identity. ded i complex Bengali verbs complex such verbs as such as bikri kɔra ‘sale bikri do’, kɔra which ‘sale do’, which verbs
such
as
k
ra
‘do’
or
h
wa
‘be’.
The
nouns
provide
the
semantic
content
the
complex
verbbears and
the helping the in helping verbs verbs turn turn the constituent the constituent N + V N into + V of a into verbal a verbal predicate. predicate. The helping The helping verb verb also bears also h produce numerous films every year and different decades order to get a diachronic perspective bilingual verb use and of possible ons of English words in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good insertions of English words in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good d have comparable lengths in that they y‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they epresent these verbs. The other type of complex verb ) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb the
helping verbs
turn the constituent N + V into a verbal predicate. The helping verb also bears
inflection. An example is cheshta kᴐra ‘to try’, formed by the noun cheshta ‘trial’ or ‘trying’ and the inflection. An example is cheshta kᴐra ‘to try’, formed by the noun cheshta ‘trial’ or ‘trying’ and the e Bengali film industry based in the city of changes that may have occurred. tion of how media data can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns illustration of how media data can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns erbs complex such verbs as, verb renovate such as, kɔra renovate ‘to renovate’, kɔra ‘to renovate’, is a which a after by
e analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + urrences of complex verbs with the X + inflection.
An
example
iswhich cheshta
kOra
‘to
try’,is formed
thenoun, noun
cheshta
‘trial’
orconstruction, ‘trying’ and the
verb kᴐra ‘do’. kᴐra ‘do’. When When a complex complex verb verb has hɔwa ‘be’ has hɔwa ‘be’ after the the noun, it is there a it passive is a passive an verb
an analyze for this paper were all produced in Like the film industry based in a Mumbai, popularly known as Bollywood, are several construction, mmunity. The present study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use of a community. The present study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use investigation of code‐switching of code‐switching in Bollywood in films Bollywood films from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. hese rbs such included as bikri Bengali complex verbs such as kɔra ‘sale do’, which bikri kɔra ‘sale do’, which per, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + k
ra
‘do’.
When
a
complex
verb
has
h
wa
‘be’
after
the
noun,
it
is
a
passive
construction,
an
example
of
example of which is nihɔto hɔwa ‘killed be’ or ‘was killed’. In Bengali, other helping verbs such as take, example of which is nihɔto hɔwa ‘killed be’ or ‘was killed’. In Bengali, other helping verbs such as take, mabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], regional language based film industries in India, which produce numerous films every year and gual verbs over time and makes use of a similar methodology. of bilingual verbs over time and makes use of a similar methodology. This study found a massive increase in the overall ound a massive increase in the overall which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from iscussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from m N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb verbs. The other type of complex verb ali omplex complex verbs verbs such such as bikri as nih
bikri kɔra ‘sale do’, do’, which which
is
to hkɔra wa ‘sale ‘killed
be’ which or ‘was killed’. In Bengali, other helping verbs such as take, cut, give, get,
cut, give, get, etc. also occur e.g., [32]. However, in this paper, I focus only on the structures with the cut, give, get, etc. also occur e.g., [32]. However, in this paper, I focus only on the structures with the i & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) enjoy a large amount of viewership. Among these, is the Bengali film industry based in the city of ically observable in the speech of young speakers. It ble in the speech of young speakers. It o’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. renovate bilingual kɔra complex ‘to renovate’, verbs such which as, is renovate a kɔra ‘to inrenovate’, a on the structures with the actional helping
esent these verbs. The other type of complex verb represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb etc.
also
occur
e.g.,
[32].
However,
this paper,which I focusis only
actional helping verb ‘do’. actional helping verb ‘do’. settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of Kolkata, sometimes referred to as Tollywood. The films I analyze for this paper were all produced in and Data Analysis Coding and Data Analysis ese films became increasingly complex atterns in these films became increasingly complex was kɔra ‘to record record’, kɔra renovate ‘to which record’, includes which an includes English an lexical lexical verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. verbs s such such as, renovate as, kɔra kɔra ‘to renovate’, ‘to renovate’, which which is a English is a verb
‘do’.
Modern Bengali shows many occurrences of these N + V structures in addition to simple verbs. Modern Bengali shows many occurrences of these N + V structures in addition to simple verbs. this industry within the past forty years and include Chadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], ween l and depict narratives of urban characters. of Hindi chunks and of English Hindi and English as compared as to shows
compared to occurrences
un both and a a noun verb and (specifically a verb (specifically in the context in the of Indian context of Indian ra ‘to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from s an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from m Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. the films that were analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + In the films that were analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + Modern
Bengali
many
of these N + V structures in addition to simple verbs. It
It must also be noted that Bengali does not have any V + kᴐra ‘do’ structures. For example, kine kᴐra It must also be noted that Bengali does not have any V + kᴐra ‘do’ structures. For example, kine kᴐra o the same socio‐economic status groups, Agantuk (1992) [23], Unishe April (1994) [24], Maach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) s. Therefore, the study serves as a good indi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good engali, esented represented with the form with N/V(Eng)+‘do’. the form N/V(Eng)+‘do’. In standard In standard the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. type of complex verb that was coded. which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from ch includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from rm were coded. These included ‘do’ Bengali form were complex coded. verbs These such included as complex verbs such as bikri kɔra ‘sale do’, which kɔra ‘sale must
also
be
noted
that
Bengali
does
not
have
any
V
k ra ‘do’
structures.
For
example,
kine
k verb ra ‘buy
do’ (intended do’ meaning meaning ‘to buy’) ‘to buy’) would would be an be impossible an +Bengali impossible structure structure because because kine is kine a bikri verb is a in in do’, which trends occurring in the speech patterns films deal ‘buy with ‘buy issues of (intended inter‐personal [26]. The films were chosen based on similarities in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of certain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns ween nction between récord, where récord, the stress where the on stress the which first is buy’)
on syllable, the first an syllable, plex verb was d’, which includes record an kɔra English ‘to is record’, lexical includes English lexical do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. s the third type of complex verb that was coded. to sell. I use the form N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb means to sell. I use the form N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb do’
(intended
meaning
‘to
would
be an
impossible
structure because
Bengali and does not need a helping verb to express the action of buying. Bengali and does not need a helping verb to express the action of buying. kine
is a verb in Bengali and
d these films are all based in the urban areas of West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. touch upon secondary themes such as hich is to determine changes in the use r purpose, which is to determine changes in the use d, where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. b alyzed (specifically as included both in a the noun context and a of verb Indian (specifically in the context of Indian a kɔra ‘to record’, ‘to record’, which which includes includes an English an English lexical lexical as coded bilingual complex that was verbs coded such included as, renovate bilingual kɔra complex ‘to renovate’, verbs which such as, is renovate a kɔra ‘to renovate’, which is a does
not
need
a
helping
verb
to
express
the
action
of
buying.
Some complex verbs also have a third element, occurring after the noun and the helping verb, Some complex verbs also have a third element, occurring after the noun and the helping verb, the past and the search for one’s identity. Secondly, the characters of the films typically belong to the same socio‐economic status groups, odology. similar methodology. ually und in not varieties in of varieties Indian English, of Indian where English, stress where is stress is b the from form Bengali, N/V(Eng)+‘do’. represented In standard with the form N/V(Eng)+‘do’. In standard oun and and a verb a found verb (specifically (specifically in the in context the context of Indian of Indian ation of an English verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. combination of an English verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. Some
verbs
have
athird thirdthird element,
occurring
afteralters the alters noun
and
helping
verb,
an N an + complex
‘do’ N + + ‘do’ V structure. + class. V also
structure. This element element is a verb is issues a verb that that the aktionsart the the
aktionsart of the of the and have comparable lengths in that they specifically forming the forming middle/upper‐middle All of This the films deal with of inter‐personal even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the some cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the e is a with distinction between here the stress is on the first récord, syllable, where the stress is on the first syllable, nted resented with the form the form N/V(Eng)+‘do’. N/V(Eng)+‘do’. In standard In standard ample discussion kɔra ‘to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from The example discussion kɔra ‘to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from forming
an
N
+
‘do’
+
V
structure.
This
third
element
is
a
verb
that
alters
the
aktionsart
of
the
complex
complex complex verb and in and some in some instances instances provides provides additional subtlety subtlety of meaning. of meaning. This verb has been has been relationships within the verb family and between lovers and additional touch upon secondary themes such This as verb actors [27]. Therefore, e.g., [27]. a Therefore, word like a record word usually like first record always usually always and recórd, where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. e second syllable when used as a verb. n ween récord, récord, where where the stress the stress is is the on first the syllable, syllable, , represented with the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. Bengali, represented with the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. verb
and
ina on some
instances
provides
additional
subtlety
of meaning.
This
verb
has
been
referred
to
as
referred referred to as to as vector a vector verb [34,35], verb [34,35], or it or has it been has been treated treated as part as part of the of class the class of light of light verbs verbs [30], [30], tion of code‐switching in Bollywood films material and intellectual aspirations in life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. ve of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. e, irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. ies ion of is Indian usually English, not found where in was varieties stress is Indian English, where stress is an of
ess is on the second syllable when used as a verb. e stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. urth type of complex verb The fourth type of verb was record kɔra ‘to record’, kɔra English ‘to record’, lexical which includes an English lexical urrences of complex verbs with the X + er, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + a vector
verb
[34,35],
orof it
has
been
treatedwhich as
partincludes of
therecord class
light
verbs
[30], including
verbs such
as
dy found a massive increase in the overall The films also all belong to the genre of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they hcomplex ɔwa ‘be’. Examples of two‐part and three‐part complex verbs hɔwa ‘be’. Examples of two‐part and three‐part complex verbs including verbs such as kɔra ‘do’ and including verbs such as kɔra ‘do’ and oded were and coded analyzed: analyzed: + kɔra; N(Beng) V(Eng) + and kɔra; + a kɔra; V(Eng) + kɔra; ble and in some cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the ily placed depending on the L1 of the d ound in such varieties in varieties of analyzed Indian of Indian English, where where stress stress is t that could be as both element a ‘sale noun that could verb be analyzed (specifically as both in the a noun context and of a Indian verb (specifically the context i erbs rbs complex as verbs such as English, bikri kɔra ‘sale bikri do’, which do’, which kand raN(Beng) ‘do’
and
hkɔra wa
‘be’.
Examples
ofis two-part
and
three-part
complex
verbs
from modernin Bengali
are of Indian ervable in the speech of young speakers. It have a run time of around two hours. from modern Bengali are shown in (4a) and (4b). from modern Bengali are shown in (4a) and (4b). inguistic re, a word like record e.g., [27]. usually Therefore, always a with word like record usually always en arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the s even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the h) with a factors ‘do’ verb from Bengali, English) represented a ‘do’ with verb the from form Bengali, N/V(Eng)+‘do’. represented In standard with the form N/V(Eng)+‘do’. In standard verbs. The other type of complex verb present these verbs. The other type of complex verb shown
in
(4a)
and
(4b).
n these films became increasingly complex A study by Si [13] reported a diachronic investigation of code‐switching in Bollywood films upokar
upokar
kor‐ech‐e
kor‐ech‐e
(N+‘do’)
(N+‘do’)
4.a. 4.a. robi robi lok‐er lok‐er ɔnek ɔnek mplex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating , the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating ond syllable, irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. 7]. , it is being used as a noun or as a verb. [27]. Therefore, Therefore, a word a word like like record record usually always always s of English, there is a distinction varieties between of which English, there is the a distinction between récord, where stress is on the first récord, syllable, where the stress is on the first syllable, rbs renovate such kɔra as, renovate ‘to renovate’, kɔra which renovate’, is a usually is a 4.a.
robi‘to lok-er
(N+‘do’)
unks of Hindi and English as compared to Onek upokar kor-ech-e
from three decades, the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall of the Robi Robi people‐GEN people‐GEN much much help help do‐PFV‐3P
do‐PFV‐3P
or ese the verbs for films each decade of each to ascertain decade the ascertain overall overall alyzed: omplex N(Beng) verbs were + films kɔra; coded V(Eng) and + analyzed: kɔra; to N(Beng) + the kɔra; V(Eng) + kɔra; tive of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. t is used as a noun and recórd, where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. when it is used as a noun and recórd, where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. rom Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. Robi
people-GEN
much
help
do-PFV-3P
ences. Therefore, the study serves as a good use of English in the films of this period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It ‘Robi
helped
people
lot.’
N(Beng) ‘Robi has helped people a lot.’ ‘Robi has helped people a lot.’ e data. The frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each kɔra. ed coded and and analyzed: analyzed: N(Beng) + has
kɔra; + kɔra; V(Eng) V(Eng) + akɔra; kɔra; er, such a distinction is usually However, not found such in a + varieties distinction of is Indian usually English, not found where in stress varieties is of Indian English, where stress is which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from s an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from oad trends occurring in the speech patterns was further reported that the code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex analyzed quantitatively by calculating of the complex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating on a heavy syllable and in some cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the usually on a heavy syllable and in some cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the ’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. type of complex verb that was coded. e, which is to determine changes in the use over the years involving more alternations chunks of Hindi as compared to b.
bæpar-ta
na
jene between jiggesh
kor-e and English bosh-ech-i
(N+‘do’+V)
jiggesh
jiggesh
kor‐e
kor‐e
bosh‐ech‐i
bosh‐ech‐i
(N+‘do’+V) b. b. bæpar‐ta na na jene jene ence of these verbs for bæpar‐ta the f each decade to which ascertain the films overall of each decade to ascertain the overall e data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating s, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating r and other sociolinguistic factors speaker e.g., and [27]. other Therefore, sociolinguistic a word factors like record e.g., usually [27]. Therefore, always (N+‘do’+V) a word like record usually always kɔra d’, which ‘to record’, includes an English includes lexical an English lexical thing-DEF
NEG
knowing
question
do-PFV.PTCP
sit-PFV-1P
methodology. insertions of English words in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good thing‐DEF thing‐DEF NEG
NEG
knowing knowing question
question
do‐PFV.PTCP
do‐PFV.PTCP
sit‐PFV‐1P sit‐PFV‐1P erbs in the data. The frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each f occurrence of complex verbs in each for he the a films films of each of each decade decade to in ascertain to ascertain the overall the Indian overall carries a stress on the second syllable, irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. b a stress on the second syllable, irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. n (specifically and verb in (specifically the context of the Indian context of ‘Without
knowing,
(I) suddenly
(and unintentionally) asked him/her about the thing.’
illustration of how media data can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns the form ‘Without knowing, (I) suddenly (and unintentionally) asked him/her about the thing.’ ‘Without knowing, (I) suddenly (and unintentionally) asked him/her about the thing.’ e frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each quencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each lowing forms of complex verbs The were following coded forms and analyzed: of complex N(Beng) verbs were + kɔra; coded V(Eng) and + kɔra; analyzed: N(Beng) + kɔra; V(Eng) + kɔra; the sented form with N/V(Eng)+‘do’. N/V(Eng)+‘do’. In standard In standard of a community. The present study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use The
verbs
in each
of the
examples (4a) and (4b) function as a single predicational element including
+ kɔra; N/V(Eng) + kɔra. N(Eng) + kɔra; N/V(Eng) + kɔra. een here récord, the stress where is The on the the stress first is syllable, on the first syllable, verbs The verbs in each in each of the of examples the examples (4a) and (4a) (4b) and function (4b) function as a as single a single predicational predicational element element of bilingual verbs over time and makes use of a similar methodology. occurrences of complex verbs with the X + the noun upokar ‘help’
or jiggesh ‘question’ providing the main semantic content of the construction.
llowing the coding of the complex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating Following the coding of the complex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating he second syllable when used as a verb. stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. including including the noun the noun upokar upokar ‘help’ ‘help’ or jiggesh or jiggesh ‘question’ ‘question’ providing providing the main the main semantic semantic content content of the of the x verbs such as bikri kɔra ‘sale do’, which The
k where ra
verb,
functioning
asoccurrence a verbalizer,
tense,
aspect,
and
person
inflections
as
in
quencies of occurrence of ‘do’
these the verbs frequencies the of of carries
these verbs for the films of each as decade to ascertain the films overall of each decade to shown
ascertain und ies of in Indian varieties English, of Indian English, stress where is for verb, stress is Coding and Data Analysis construction. construction. The kɔra The ‘do’ kɔra ‘do’ verb, functioning functioning a as verbalizer, a verbalizer, carries carries tense, tense, aspect, aspect, and person and person the overall hese verbs. The other type of complex verb (4a). The third
verb or vector verb in example (4b) alters the aktionsart of the construction and adds
ution of complex verbs in the data. The frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each distribution of complex verbs in the data. The frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each ily placed depending on the L1 of the even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the inflections as shown in (4a). The third verb or vector verb in example (4b) alters the aktionsart of the inflections as shown in (4a). The third verb or vector verb in example (4b) alters the aktionsart of the re, as, renovate kɔra ‘to renovate’, which is a Foralways In the films that were analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + subtle
semantic
content.
example in this sentence, it indicates that the action of asking was done
[27]. a Therefore, word like record a construction word usually like always usually construction and record adds and adds subtle subtle semantic semantic content. content. For example For example in this in sentence, this sentence, it indicates it indicates that the that the gali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. ‘do’ form were coded. These included Bengali complex verbs such bikri kkɔra ‘sale carries
do’, which suddenly
and
unintentionally.
Unlike
in example
(4a),as where
ra ‘do’
inflections, in (4b) it
ve of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. it is being used as a noun or as a verb. action action of asking of asking was done was done suddenly suddenly and unintentionally. and unintentionally. Unlike Unlike in example in example (4a), (4a), where where kɔra ‘do’ kɔra ‘do’ udes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from means to sell. I use the form N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb inN(Beng) perfective
form
and the vector verb carries inflections of tense, person and aspect. It
alyzed: oded and N(Beng) analyzed: + is
kɔra; V(Eng) + kɔra; + participle
kɔra; V(Eng) + kɔra; carries inflections, in (4b) it is in perfective participle form and the vector verb carries inflections of carries inflections, in (4b) it is in perfective participle form and the vector verb carries inflections of hird type of complex verb that was coded. that was coded must
included bilingual complex verbs adjacent
such as, to
renovate ‘to which a be noted
that not
every noun
a verb kɔra forms
a renovate’, complex verb.
In is regular
object-verb
tense, person and aspect. It must be noted that not every noun adjacent to a verb forms a complex tense, person and aspect. It must be noted that not every noun adjacent to a verb forms a complex ecord’, which includes an English lexical combination of an English verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. constructions,
the
nouns
are
only
arguments
of
the
verbs
(4c),
and
together
do
not
form
a complex
analyzed quantitatively by calculating the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating verb. verb. In regular In regular object‐verb object‐verb constructions, constructions, the nouns the nouns are only are only arguments arguments of the of verbs the verbs (4c), (4c), and and verb in decade the context of (for
Indian The example discussion kɔra ‘to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from verb
construction
relevant
distinctions see [33] pp. 347–350).
or the (specifically f each films decade of each to ascertain the to ascertain overall the overall together do not form a complex verb construction (for relevant distinctions see [33] pp. 347–350). together do not form a complex verb construction (for relevant distinctions see [33] pp. 347–350). with the form N/V(Eng)+‘do’. In standard Bengali, represented with the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each f occurrence of complex verbs in each c.
uni
amar
theke
shahajjo
ni-ech-e-n
(O V)
d, The where the c. stress is uni on the first syllable, fourth type complex verb was record kɔra ‘to shahajjo
record’, which includes an English shahajjo
ni‐ech‐e‐n
ni‐ech‐e‐n
uni c. of amar amar theke theke (O V) (O V) lexical 3SG.HON
1SG.GEN
from
help
take-PFV-3P-HON
on the second syllable when used as a verb. element that be analyzed as both from a noun and help a verb (specifically in the context could 3SG.HON 3SG.HON 1SG.GEN 1SG.GEN from help take‐PFV‐3P‐HON
take‐PFV‐3P‐HON
of Indian ‘He/She has taken help from me.’
arieties of Indian where is represented English) with a ‘do’ verb from stress Bengali, ‘He/She has taken help from me.’ English, ‘He/She has taken help from me.’ with the form N/V(Eng)+‘do’. In standard itrarily placed depending on the L1 of the varieties of English, there is a distinction between récord, where the stress is on the first syllable, refore, a word like record usually always when it is used as a noun and recórd, where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. ether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. However, such a distinction is usually not found in varieties of Indian English, where stress is d analyzed: N(Beng) + kɔra; V(Eng) + kɔra; usually on a heavy syllable and in some cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the speaker and other sociolinguistic factors e.g., [27]. Therefore, a word like record usually always was analyzed quantitatively by calculating carries a stress on the second syllable, irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. such as khæla ‘play’, or such as khæla ‘play’, or such as khæla ‘play’, or such as khæla ‘play’, or shona ‘hear’ just like in English, an example of which is provided below in (3). shona ‘hear’ just like in English, an example of which is provided below in (3). shona ‘hear’ just like in English, an example of which is provided below
shona ‘hear’ just like in English, an example of which is provided b
Modern Bengali also has single‐word verbs, which I call simple verbs (following Thompson [32]) Modern Bengali also has single‐word verbs, which I call simple verbs (following Thompson [32]) The films also all belong to the genre of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they these films are all based in the urban areas of West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. These verbs consist of a single word denoting an action or a state. Apart from simple verbs, are the These verbs consist of a single word denoting an action or a state. Apart from simple verbs, are the These verbs consist of a single word denoting an action or a state. Apart from simple verbs, a
These verbs consist of a single word denoting an action or a state. Apart from simple ve
such as khæla ‘play’, or such as khæla ‘play’, or sh
ona ‘hear’ just like in English, an example of which is provided below in (3). sh
ona ‘hear’ just like in English, an example of which is provided below in (3). have a run time of around two hours. same socio‐economic status groups, Secondly, the characters of the films typically belong to the complex verb structures, which are discussed in more detail below. complex verb structures, which are discussed in more detail below. complex verb structures, which are discussed in more detail below. complex verb structures, which are discussed in more detail below. These verbs consist of a single word denoting an action or a state. Apart from simple verbs, are the These verbs consist of a single word denoting an action or a state. Apart from simple verbs, are the A study by Si [13] reported a diachronic specifically the middle/upper‐middle class. All of the films deal investigation with issues of code‐switching inter‐personal in Bollywood Languages 2016, 1, 5 4 of 17 films complex verb structures, which are discussed in more detail below. complex verb structures, which are discussed in more detail below. relationships the family and touch upon secondary themes por‐ech‐e
such as por‐ech‐e
por‐ech‐e
por‐ech‐e
(simple verb) (simple verb) (simple verb) (simple verb) 3. she 3. within she from three decades, the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall gach gach 3. between she 3. theke she lovers theke and gach gach theke theke 3. Methodology use of English in the films of this period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It material and intellectual aspirations in life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. por‐ech‐e
por‐ech‐e
(simple verb) 3. 3SG she tree 3SG from 3SG from tree fall‐PFV‐3P from from (simple verb) fall‐PFV‐3P fall‐PFV‐3P 17 3. 3SG she 2016, 1, 5tree gach gach theke theke tree fall‐PFV‐3P Languages
7 of
was further reported that the code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex The films also all belong to the genre of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they ‘He/She has fallen from the tree.’ (Thompson 2010)
3SG ‘He/She has fallen from the tree.’ (Thompson 2010)
‘He/She has fallen from the tree.’ (Thompson 2010)
‘He/She has fallen from the tree.’ (Thompson 2010)
3SG tree tree from from fall‐PFV‐3P fall‐PFV‐3P For the purpose of this paper, I analyze a total of 6 Bengali films from three decades, the 1970s, over the years involving more alternations between chunks of Hindi and English as compared to have a run time of around two hours. ‘He/She has fallen from the tree.’ (Thompson 2010)
the 1990s and post‐2010. I examine two films from each decade. I chose to examine films from three ‘He/She has fallen from the tree.’ (Thompson 2010)
4.2.
Bilingual
Complex
Verbs
insertions of English words in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good A study by Si [13] reported a diachronic investigation of code‐switching in Bollywood films 4.1. Monolingual Complex Verbs 4.1. Monolingual Complex Verbs 4.1. Monolingual Complex Verbs different decades in 4.1. Monolingual Complex Verbs order to get a diachronic perspective of bilingual verb use and of possible illustration of how media data can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns from three decades, the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall 4.1. Monolingual Complex Verbs 4.1. Monolingual Complex Verbs changes that may have occurred. (N(Beng) + kᴐra/hᴐwa ‘do’/’be’) (N(Beng) + kᴐra/hᴐwa ‘do’/’be’) (N(Beng) + kᴐra/hᴐwa ‘do’/’be’) (N(Beng) + kᴐra/hᴐwa ‘do’/’be’) (N(Eng) + k ra/h wa ‘do’/’be’;
V(Eng)
+ k ra/h wa ‘do’/’be’;
Languages 2016, 1, 5 7 of 17 of a community. The present study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use use of English in the films of this period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It Like the film industry based in Mumbai, popularly known as Bollywood, there are several (N(Beng) + kᴐra/hᴐwa ‘do’/’be’) (N(Beng) + kᴐra/hᴐwa ‘do’/’be’) The N + ‘do’/’be’ verbal structures are two‐part and three‐part verbs that occur in addition to The N + ‘do’/’be’ verbal structures are two‐part and three‐part verbs that occur in addition to The N + ‘do’/’be’ verbal structures are two‐part and three‐part verbs that occur in addi
The N + ‘do’/’be’ verbal structures are two‐part and three‐part verbs that occur in N/V(Eng)
+ k ra/h wa ‘do’/’be’)
of bilingual verbs over time and makes use of a similar methodology. was further reported that the code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex 4.2. Bilingual Complex Verbs regional language based film industries in India, which produce numerous films every year and simple verbs in modern Bengali. In these structures, nouns (or adjectives) occur alongside helping simple verbs in modern Bengali. In these structures, nouns (or adjectives) occur alongside helping simple verbs in modern Bengali. In these structures, nouns (or adjectives) occur alongside h
simple verbs in modern Bengali. In these structures, nouns (or adjectives) occur alongs
The N + ‘do’/’be’ verbal structures are two‐part and three‐part verbs that occur in addition to The N + ‘do’/’be’ verbal structures are two‐part and three‐part verbs that occur in addition to over the years involving more alternations between chunks of Hindi English as compared to bilingual
(N(Eng) + kᴐra/hᴐwa ‘do’/’be’; V(Eng) + kᴐra/hᴐwa ‘do’/’be’; Another
type
of
complex
verb
in modern
Bengali
is the and bilingual
complex
verb. These
enjoy a large amount of viewership. Among these, is the Bengali film industry based in the city of verbs such as kᴐra ‘do’ or hɔwa ‘be’. The nouns provide the semantic content to the complex verb and verbs such as kᴐra ‘do’ or hɔwa ‘be’. The nouns provide the semantic content to the complex verb and verbs such as kᴐra ‘do’ or hɔwa ‘be’. The nouns provide the semantic content to the complex ve
verbs such as kᴐra ‘do’ or hɔwa ‘be’. The nouns provide the semantic content to the compl
simple verbs in modern Bengali. In these structures, nouns (or adjectives) occur alongside helping simple verbs in modern Bengali. In these structures, nouns (or adjectives) occur alongside helping Coding and Data Analysis insertions of English words in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good N/V(Eng) + kᴐra/hᴐwa ‘do’/’be’) verbs
of
Bengali
English
nominal
ora verbal
lexical
elements
in
bare
with
helping
Kolkata, sometimes referred to as Tollywood. The films I analyze for this paper were all produced in the helping the helping verbs verbs turn combine
turn the constituent the the constituent helping the helping N + verbs V N into + verbs turn V into verbal turn the a constituent verbal the predicate. constituent predicate. N The + V N helping The into + the
V helping a into verbal verb a form
verbal verb also predicate. bears also predicate. bears The helping The helping verb verb
also
verbs such as kᴐra ‘do’ or hɔwa ‘be’. The nouns provide the semantic content to the complex verb and verbs such as kᴐra ‘do’ or hɔwa ‘be’. The nouns provide the semantic content to the complex verb and illustration of how media data can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns In the films that were analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + verbs
from
Bengali.
These
verbs
in modern
Bengali
consist
of predicate. eitherThe two-part
or three-part
this industry within the past forty years and include Chadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], Another type of complex verb in modern Bengali is the bilingual complex verb. These bilingual inflection. An example is cheshta kᴐra ‘to try’, formed by the noun cheshta ‘trial’ or ‘trying’ and the inflection. An example is cheshta kᴐra ‘to try’, formed by the noun cheshta ‘trial’ or ‘trying’ a
inflection. An example is cheshta kᴐra ‘to try’, formed by the noun cheshta ‘trial’ or ‘tryi
the inflection. An example is cheshta kᴐra ‘to try’, formed by the noun cheshta ‘trial’ or ‘trying’ and the helping the helping verbs verbs turn turn the constituent the constituent N + V N into + V a into verbal a verbal predicate. helping The helping verb verb also structures
bears also bears of a community. The present study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use ‘do’ form were coded. These included Bengali complex verbs such as bikri kɔra ‘sale and
the first
lexical
element
isverb always
from
English,
combining
with
helping
verbs
such
as
k ra
‘do’
ordo’, verbs of Bengali combine English nominal or verbal lexical elements in the bare form with helping Agantuk (1992) [23], Unishe April (1994) [24], Maach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) verb verb kᴐra ‘do’. kᴐra ‘do’. When When a complex a complex verb verb kᴐra ‘do’. verb has kᴐra ‘do’. hɔwa ‘be’ has When hɔwa ‘be’ When a after complex a after the complex noun, the verb noun, verb it has is hɔwa ‘be’ a it has passive is hɔwa ‘be’ a passive after construction, after the construction, noun, the an noun, it is an a it passive is a which passive constructi
cons
inflection. An example is cheshta kᴐra ‘to try’, formed by the noun cheshta ‘trial’ or ‘trying’ and the inflection. An example is cheshta kᴐra ‘to try’, formed by the noun cheshta ‘trial’ or ‘trying’ and the of bilingual verbs over time and makes use of a similar methodology. verbs from Bengali. These verbs in modern Bengali consist of either two‐part or three‐part structures means to sell. I use the form N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb hOwa
‘be’
from
Bengali.
Sometimes
a
third
verb
from
Bengali
may
also
occur
after
the
helping
verbs
‘do’
[26]. The films were chosen based on similarities in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of example of which is nihɔto hɔwa ‘killed be’ or ‘was killed’. In Bengali, other helping verbs such as take, example of which is nihɔto hɔwa ‘killed be’ or ‘was killed’. In Bengali, other helping verbs such as take, example of which is nihɔto hɔwa ‘killed be’ or ‘was killed’. In Bengali, other helping verbs verb verb kᴐra ‘do’. kᴐra ‘do’. When When a complex a example of which is nihɔto hɔwa ‘killed be’ or ‘was killed’. In Bengali, other helping verbs such complex verb verb has hɔwa ‘be’ has hɔwa ‘be’ after after the noun, the noun, it is a it passive is a passive construction, construction, an an and the first lexical element is always from English, combining with helping verbs such as kɔra ‘do’ that was included bilingual verbs such as, renovate verbs).
kɔra ‘to renovate’, and
‘be’ (see
[37])
forcoded relevant
discussion
on thecomplex third verb
in bilingual
complex
The
exampleswhich is a these films are all based in the urban areas of West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. cut, give, get, etc. also occur e.g., [32]. However, in this paper, I focus only on the structures with the cut, give, get, etc. also occur e.g., [32]. However, in this paper, I focus only on the structures with the cut, give, get, etc. also occur e.g., [32]. However, in this paper, I focus only on the structur
example of which is nihɔto hɔwa ‘killed be’ or ‘was killed’. In Bengali, other helping verbs such as take, example of which is nihɔto hɔwa ‘killed be’ or ‘was killed’. In Bengali, other helping verbs such as take, or hɔwa ‘be’ from Bengali. cut, give, get, etc. also occur e.g., [32]. However, in this paper, I focus only on the structures w
Sometimes a third verb from Bengali may also occur after the helping Coding and Data Analysis combination of an English verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. below
show
the
range
of
lexical
elements
from
English
that
can
occur
in
these
structures.
Example
(5a)
Secondly, the characters of the films typically belong to the same socio‐economic status groups, verbs ‘do’ and ‘be’ (see [37]) for relevant discussion on the third verb in bilingual complex verbs). actional helping verb ‘do’. actional helping verb ‘do’. actional helping verb ‘do’. actional helping verb ‘do’. cut, give, get, etc. also occur e.g., [32]. However, in this paper, I focus only on the structures with the cut, give, get, etc. also occur e.g., [32]. However, in this paper, I focus only on the structures with the The example discussion kɔra ‘to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from In the films that were analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + illustrates
English
nouns,
(5b)
English
verbal
nouns,
(5c)
English
phrasal
verbs
and
(5d)
an
English
The examples below show the Modern Bengali shows many occurrences of these N + V structures in addition to simple
range Modern Bengali shows many occurrences of these N + V structures in addition to si
of lexical class. elements from that can occur in these specifically the middle/upper‐middle All of English the films deal with issues of inter‐personal Modern Bengali shows many occurrences of these N + V structures in addition to simple verbs. Modern Bengali shows many occurrences of these N + V structures in addition to simple verbs. actional helping verb ‘do’. actional helping verb ‘do’. structures. Example (5a) illustrates English nouns, (5b) English verbal nouns, (5c) English phrasal Bengali, represented with the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. ‘do’ It must also be noted that Bengali does not have any V + kᴐra ‘do’ structures. For example, kine kᴐra form It must also be noted that Bengali does not have any V + kᴐra ‘do’ structures. For example, kine kᴐra were coded. These included Bengali complex verbs such as bikri kɔra ‘sale do’, which verb.
All
of
these
nominal
and
lexical
elements
may
occur
beside
the
k
ra
‘do’
verb
from
Bengali.
I use as relationships within the family and between lovers and touch upon secondary themes such It must also be noted that Bengali does not have any V + kᴐra ‘do’ structures. For example, ki
It must also be noted that Bengali does not have any V + kᴐra ‘do’ structures. For examp
Modern Bengali shows many occurrences of these N + V structures in addition to simple verbs. Modern Bengali shows many occurrences of these N + V structures in addition to simple verbs. verbs and (5d) an English verb. All of these nominal and lexical elements may occur beside the kɔra The fourth type of complex verb was record kɔra ‘to record’, which includes an English lexical means to sell. I use the form N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb the
term
verbal
noun
to
refer
to
elements
such
as
shopping
and
skipping,
and
phrasal
verbs
to
refer
to
material and intellectual aspirations in life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. ‘buy ‘buy do’ (intended do’ (intended meaning meaning ‘to ‘buy buy’) ‘to ‘buy do’ buy’) would (intended do’ would (intended be an meaning be impossible an meaning impossible ‘to buy’) structure ‘to buy’) would structure would because be because an be impossible kine an is impossible kine a verb is structure a verb in structure in because because kine is kine a vi
It must also be noted that Bengali does not have any V + kᴐra ‘do’ structures. For example, kine kᴐra It must also be noted that Bengali does not have any V + kᴐra ‘do’ structures. For example, kine kᴐra ‘do’ verb from Bengali. I use the term verbal noun to refer to elements such as shopping and skipping, element that could be analyzed as both a impossible noun and a renovate’, verb (specifically in the that Bengali and does not need a helping verb to express the action of buying. was coded included bilingual complex verbs such as, renovate kɔra ‘to which is elements
as
build
up,
work
out,buy’) hangwould up,
as
used
by
Romaine
[3].
The films also all belong to the genre of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they and phrasal verbs to refer to elements such as build up, work out, hang up, as used by Romaine [3]. Bengali and does not need a helping verb to express the action of buying. Bengali and does not need a helping verb to express the action of buying. Bengali and does not need a helping verb to express the action of buying. because because ‘buy ‘buy do’ (intended do’ such
(intended meaning meaning ‘to buy’) ‘to would be an be impossible an structure structure kine is kine a a verb is a context verb in in of Indian English) with a ‘do’ verb from combination of an English verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. have a run time of around two hours. Bengali, represented with Some complex verbs also have a third element, occurring after the noun and the helping verb, Some complex verbs also have a third element, occurring after the noun and the helping verb, Some complex verbs also have a third element, occurring after the noun and the he
Bengali and does not need a helping verb to express the action of buying. Bengali and does not need a helping verb to express the action of buying. the form N/V(Eng)+‘do’. In standard operation
kor‐l‐okor-l-o(N(Eng)+’do’)(N(Eng)+’do’)
5a. shei moment‐e 5a.
shei
moment-e Some complex verbs also have a third element, occurring after the noun and the helping
operation
varieties of English, there is a distinction between récord, where the is the first syllable, The example discussion kɔra ‘to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from A by Si reported a an diachronic of alters code‐switching in films an Some complex verbs also have a third element, occurring after the noun and the helping verb, that operation is forming forming N an + study ‘do’ N moment‐LOC + + ‘do’ V structure. + [13] V forming structure. forming This an This third N + do‐PST‐3P
‘do’ third N element + do-PST-3P
+ ‘do’ element V investigation structure. + V a verb structure. is a verb that This that This third alters third element the aktionsart element the stress is aktionsart a Bollywood verb is of a on the verb that of the alters that alters the aktionsart the aktion
Some complex verbs also have a third element, occurring after the noun and the helping verb, that
moment-LOC
operation
from three decades, the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall when it is used as a noun and recórd, where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. Bengali, represented with the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. ‘In‘In that moment, (he) did the operation (surgery).’ that
(he)
did
operation
(surgery).’
complex complex verb verb and in and some in instances instances complex provides verb provides verb and additional in and some additional in some instances subtlety subtlety provides meaning. of provides meaning. additional This additional This verb subtlety verb of meaning. of meaning. This This verb ver
has subtlety been has been ha
forming forming an N an + moment,
‘do’ N + + ‘do’ V some structure. + complex V the
structure. This This third third element element is a instances verb is a of verb that alters that alters the aktionsart the aktionsart of the of the complex However, such a distinction is usually not found in varieties of Indian English, where stress is The referred fourth type of verb was record kɔra ‘to record’, which includes an English lexical use of English in the films of this period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It referred to verb as to a verb as vector a in vector verb verb referred [34,35], referred or to it or as has to it a been as has vector a been treated vector verb treated [34,35], verb as part [34,35], as or part of it the or has of it class the been has class of been treated light of treated light verbs as verb part verbs [30], as part of [30], the of class the class of light of light
verb
complex complex and and some in [34,35], some instances instances provides provides additional additional subtlety subtlety of meaning. of meaning. This This verb has been has been kor‐b‐i?
(Verbal noun(Eng)+’do’) o‐r shɔŋge shopping
b.b. tuitui be o-r
shopping
kor-b-i?
(Verbal
noun(Eng)+’do’)
usually on a heavy syllable and in some cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the element that could analyzed as both a or noun and a verb (specifically in the the context of Indian was further reported that the code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex referred referred to as to a as vector a vector verb [34,35], verb [34,35], it or has it been has been treated treated as part as part of of class the class of light of light verbs verbs [30], [30], 2SG
2SG 3SG-GEN
3SG‐GEN with do‐FUT‐2P do-FUT-2P
hshopping ɔwa ‘be’. Examples of two‐part and three‐part complex verbs hɔwa ‘be’. Examples of two‐part and three‐part complex verbs hɔwa ‘be’. Examples of two‐part and three‐part complex
hɔwa ‘be’. Examples of two‐part and three‐part com
including verbs such as kɔra ‘do’ and including verbs such as kɔra ‘do’ and including verbs such as kɔra ‘do’ and with including verbs such as kɔra ‘do’ and shopping
speaker and Bengali, other sociolinguistic factors [27]. Therefore, a In word like record usually always English) with a ‘You
‘do’ verb from represented with the e.g., form N/V(Eng)+‘do’. standard the involving more alternations between chunks of Hindi and over ‘You will be shopping with her?’ willyears be shopping
with
her?’
h ɔwa ‘be’. Examples of two‐part and three‐part complex verbs hɔwa ‘be’. Examples of two‐part and three‐part complex verbs including verbs such as kɔra ‘do’ and including verbs such as kɔra ‘do’ and from modern Bengali are shown in (4a) and (4b). from modern Bengali are shown in (4a) and (4b). from modern Bengali are shown in (4a) and (4b). from modern Bengali are shown in (4a) and (4b). English as compared to insertions of English words in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good there carries a stress on the second syllable, irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. varieties of English, is a distinction between récord, where the stress is on the first syllable, from modern Bengali are shown in (4a) and (4b). from modern Bengali are shown in (4a) and (4b). kor‐echil‐o
build up
(Phrasal V(Eng)+’do’)
cinema‐ta je ɔnek bhabe upokar
upokar
kor‐ech‐e
kor‐ech‐e
(N+‘do’)
(N+‘do’)
upokar
upokar
kor‐ech‐e
kor‐ech‐e
(N+‘do’)
4.a. 4.a. robi robi lok‐er lok‐er ɔnek 4.a. robi robi lok‐er lok‐er ɔnek ɔnek c.c. cinema-ta
je 4.a. bhabe
build
up were kor-echil-o
(Phrasal
V(Eng)+’do’)
The following forms of complex verbs coded and analyzed: N(Beng) + (N+‘do’)
kɔra; V(Eng) + kɔra; when it is used as a noun and recórd, where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. illustration of how media data can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns cinema-DEF
cinema‐DEF COMP way build up do‐PST.PFV‐3P
COMP
way
build
up
do-PST.PFV-3P
upokar
upokar
kor‐ech‐e
kor‐ech‐e
(N+‘do’)
(N+‘do’)
4.a. Robi Robi people‐GEN people‐GEN much much Robi help found Robi help people‐GEN do‐PFV‐3P
people‐GEN do‐PFV‐3P
much Indian much help English, help do‐PFV‐3P
do‐PFV‐3P
is 4.a. robi lok‐er lok‐er is usually ɔnek ɔnek N(Eng) + kɔra; N/V(Eng) + kɔra. However, such a robi distinction not in varieties of where stress of a community. The present study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use ‘The
‘The way they had built up the movie…….’ way they had built up the movie . . . . . . .’
‘Robi has helped people a lot.’ ‘Robi has helped people a lot.’ ‘Robi has helped people a lot.’ ‘Robi has helped people a lot.’ Robi Robi people‐GEN people‐GEN much much help help do‐PFV‐3P
do‐PFV‐3P
Following the coding of the complex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating usually on a heavy syllable and in some cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the of bilingual verbs over time and makes use of a similar methodology. and d.
ora
factors e.g., [27]. renew
‘Robi has helped people a lot.’ ‘Robi has helped people a lot.’ (V(Eng)+’do’) d. ora bol‐ech‐e application‐ta the frequencies of occurrence of these verbs for the films of (V(Eng)+’do’)
each decade to ascertain the overall speaker other sociolinguistic Therefore, a word like record usually always bol-ech-e
application-ta
renewkor‐b‐e
kor-b-e
3PL say‐PFV‐3P application‐DEF renew do‐FUT‐3P
jiggesh
jiggesh
jiggesh
kor‐e
kor‐e
jiggesh
kor‐e
kor‐e
bosh‐ech‐i
bosh‐ech‐i
(N+‘do’+V) (N+‘do’+V) bosh‐ech‐i
bosh‐ech‐i
(N+‘do’+V) (N+‘do’
b. b. bæpar‐ta bæpar‐ta na na jene b. jene b. bæpar‐ta bæpar‐ta na na jene jene Coding and Data Analysis distribution of complex verbs in the data. The frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each 3PL
say-PFV-3P
application-DEF
renew
do-FUT-3P
carries a stress on the second syllable, irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. ‘They
‘They said (they) would renew the application.’ said
(they)
would
thequestion
application.’
jiggesh
jiggesh
kor‐e
kor‐eknowing bosh‐ech‐i
bosh‐ech‐i
b. thing‐DEF thing‐DEF knowing renew
knowing were thing‐DEF thing‐DEF question
NEG
do‐PFV.PTCP
NEG
do‐PFV.PTCP
knowing sit‐PFV‐1P question
sit‐PFV‐1P question
(N+‘do’+V) do‐PFV.PTCP
(N+‘do’+V) sit‐PFV‐1P b. bæpar‐ta bæpar‐ta na NEG
na jene jene The following forms of NEG
complex verbs coded and analyzed: N(Beng) + kɔra; do‐PFV.PTCP
V(Eng) + kɔra; sit‐PFV‐1P In the films that were analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + ‘Without knowing, (I) suddenly (and unintentionally) asked him/her about the thing.’ ‘Without knowing, (I) suddenly (and unintentionally) asked him/her about the thing.’ knowing ‘Without knowing, (I) suddenly (and unintentionally) asked him/her about the thing.’ ‘Without knowing, (I) suddenly (and unintentionally) asked him/her about the thin
thing‐DEF thing‐DEF NEG NEG
knowing question
question
do‐PFV.PTCP
do‐PFV.PTCP
sit‐PFV‐1P sit‐PFV‐1P N(Eng) + kɔra; N/V(Eng) + kɔra. The Bengali elements that occur in the bilingual verbs are the helping verb kɔra ‘do’, in active ‘do’ form were coded. These included complex verbs as verb
bikri kkɔra ‘sale in
do’, which The
Bengali
elements
that occur
in theBengali bilingual
verbs are
the such helping
ra ‘do’,
active
‘Without knowing, (I) suddenly (and unintentionally) asked him/her about the thing.’ ‘Without knowing, (I) suddenly (and unintentionally) asked him/her about the thing.’ structures, and hɔwa ‘be’, in stative structures, in line with Romaine’s [3] observation of Punjabi–
Following the coding of the complex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating The verbs The verbs in each in each of the of examples the The examples verbs The (4a) verbs in and (4a) each in (4b) and each of function (4b) the of function examples the as examples a as single (4a) a single and (4a) predicational (4b) and predicational function (4b) function element as element a as single a single predicational predication
el
means to sell. I use the form N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb structures,
and hOwa
‘be’,Each in stative
structures,
in line
with Romaine’s
observation
of Punjabi–English
English bilingual speech. complex verb together expresses one single [3]
event, the English the frequencies of occurrence of these verbs for the films of each decade to ascertain the overall including including the noun the noun upokar upokar including ‘help’ or including jiggesh or the jiggesh ‘question’ noun the and ‘question’ noun upokar providing upokar ‘help’ providing ‘help’ or the jiggesh or the jiggesh ‘question’ ‘question’ providing providing the main main semantic semantic content content of the the of main the main semantic content con
The verbs The verbs in each in each of ‘help’ the of examples the examples (4a) (4a) (4b) and function (4b) function as a as single a single predicational predicational element element that was coded included bilingual complex verbs such as, renovate kɔra ‘to renovate’, which is a semantic bilingual
speech.
Each
complex
verb
together
expresses
one
single
event,
the
English
nominal
or
verbal
nominal or verbal element, which is in the bare form, provides lexical meaning and the helping distribution of complex verbs in the data. The frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each verbs bear tense, person, and aspect inflections. as construction. construction. The kɔra The ‘do’ kɔra verb, ‘do’ construction. verb, functioning construction. functioning The kɔra The a as verbalizer, ‘do’ kɔra a verbalizer, verb, ‘do’ verb, carries functioning carries functioning tense, tense, as aspect, a verbs
as verbalizer, aspect, a content and verbalizer, person and carries carries aspect, aspect, and p
a
including including the noun the noun upokar upokar ‘help’ ‘help’ or jiggesh or jiggesh ‘question’ ‘question’ providing providing the the
the main main semantic semantic content of person the of tense, the tense, combination of an English verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. element,
which
is
in
the
bare
form,
provides
lexical
meaning
and
helping
bear
tense,
person,
As we would expect, bilingual complex verbs occur much more frequently in bilingual Bengali–
inflections as shown in (4a). The third verb or vector verb in example (4b) alters the aktionsart of the inflections as shown in (4a). The third verb or vector verb in example (4b) alters the aktionsart of the inflections as shown in (4a). The third verb or vector verb in example (4b) alters the aktionsart
inflections as shown in (4a). The third verb or vector verb in example (4b) alters the aktio
construction. construction. The kɔra The ‘do’ kɔra verb, ‘do’ verb, functioning functioning as a as verbalizer, a verbalizer, carries carries tense, tense, aspect, aspect, and person and person andThe example discussion kɔra ‘to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from aspect inflections.
English speech, than they do in the speech of monolingual Bengali speakers or speakers who do not construction construction and adds subtle subtle construction semantic construction semantic content. and content. adds and For adds example subtle For example subtle semantic in this semantic in sentence, content. this sentence, content. For example For example in in sentence, this it frequently
indicates it indicates that the that the sentence, it indicates it indica
th
inflections as shown in (4a). The third verb or vector verb in example (4b) alters the aktionsart of the inflections as shown in (4a). The third verb or vector verb in example (4b) alters the aktionsart of the Bengali, represented with the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. Asand weadds would
expect,
bilingual
complex
verbs
occur
much
more
inthis bilingual
have a lot of exposure to English. Some bilingual verbs correspond to N/V(Eng) + ‘do’ structures, in action action of which the N/V are lexical items in English that cannot be clearly identified as either a noun or a verb. asking of fourth asking was done was done suddenly action suddenly action of and asking of unintentionally. and asking unintentionally. done was done suddenly Unlike suddenly Unlike in and example in unintentionally. and example unintentionally. (4a), (4a), where where Unlike kɔra Unlike ‘do’ kɔra in example ‘do’ in example (4a), (4a), where whe
kɔ
construction construction and adds and adds subtle subtle semantic semantic content. content. For example For example in this in sentence, this sentence, it indicates it indicates that the that the The type of complex verb was record kɔra ‘to record’, which includes an English lexical Bengali–English
speech,
than
they
do
inwas the
speech
of
monolingual
Bengali
speakers
or
speakers
For example, shift could shift’ where shift can be analyzed either a in noun or a verb. I in have carries inflections, in (4b) it is in perfective participle form and the vector verb carries inflections of carries inflections, in (4b) it is in perfective participle form and the vector verb carries inflections of carries inflections, in (4b) it is in perfective participle form and the vector verb carries inflecti
carries inflections, in (4b) it is in perfective participle form and the vector verb carries in
action action of asking of asking was done was done suddenly suddenly and unintentionally. and unintentionally. Unlike Unlike example in example (4a), (4a), where where kɔra ‘do’ kɔra ‘do’ element that be analyzed both a noun bilingual
and a as verb (specifically the context of who
do
not
have
akɔra lot‘to of
exposure
toas English.
Some
verbs
correspond
to
N/V(Eng)
+ Indian ‘do’
included both verbal nouns and phrasal verbs in this category. Pillai [6] points out that a verb such tense, person and aspect. It must be noted that not every noun adjacent to a verb forms a complex tense, person and aspect. It must be noted that not every noun adjacent to a verb forms a complex carries inflections, in (4b) it is in perfective participle form and the vector verb carries inflections of carries inflections, in (4b) it is in perfective participle form and the vector verb carries inflections of English) inwith a ‘do’ verb tense, person and aspect. It must be noted that not every noun adjacent to a verb forms
from Bengali, with the form N/V(Eng)+‘do’. standard structures,
which
the tense, person and aspect. It must be noted that not every noun adjacent to a verb forms a co
N/V
are
lexical
itemsrepresented in English that
cannot
be clearly
identified asIn either
a
as give can also occur as a helping verb in bilingual complex verbs. However, if give occurs as a verb. verb. In regular In regular object‐verb object‐verb constructions, verb. constructions, verb. In regular In regular the object‐verb nouns the object‐verb nouns are constructions, only are constructions, only arguments arguments the of nouns the the of nouns verbs the are verbs only (4c), are only arguments (4c), and arguments and of verbs the verb
(4c
tense, person and aspect. It must be noted that not every noun adjacent to a verb forms a complex tense, person and aspect. It must be noted that not every noun adjacent to a verb forms a complex varieties of English, there is verb, a kOra
distinction between récord, where the stress is the first noun
or averb in verb.
For
example,
shift
shift’
where
shift
can be
analyzed
either
as
a noun
or asyllable, verb. of the helping a bilingual complex it ‘to
is not clear if the construction is a complex verb or a on together do not form a complex verb construction (for relevant distinctions see [33] pp. 347–350). together do not form a complex verb construction (for relevant distinctions see [33] pp. 347–350). together do not form a complex verb construction (for relevant distinctions see [33] pp. 347–35
together do not form a complex verb construction (for relevant distinctions see [33] pp. 3
verb. In regular In regular object‐verb object‐verb constructions, constructions, the nouns the nouns are are category.
only arguments arguments of [6]
the of verbs the verbs (4c), (4c), and and when it is used as a noun and recórd, where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. Iverb. have
included
both
verbal
nouns
and phrasal
verbs
in only this
Pillai
points
out
that
a verb
regular object verb construction. Therefore, for the purpose of this paper, I restrict the discussion and analysis only to the X + do constructions; that is, constructions involving a noun and/or verb along together do not form a complex verb construction (for relevant distinctions see [33] pp. 347–350). together do not form a complex verb construction (for relevant distinctions see [33] pp. 347–350). However, such a distinction is usually not found in varieties of Indian English, where stress is such
as
give
can
also
occur
as
a
helping
verb
in
bilingual
complex
verbs.
However,
if
give
occurs
as (O V) shahajjo
ni‐ech‐e‐n
ni‐ech‐e‐n
shahajjo
shahajjo
ni‐ech‐e‐n
ni‐ech‐e‐n
c. uni c. with the helping verb ‘do’. uni amar amar c. theke uni c. theke uni shahajjo
amar amar theke theke (O V) (O V) (O V) usually on a heavy syllable and in some cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the ac. helping
in 1SG.GEN aamar bilingual
verb,
itni‐ech‐e‐n
is1SG.GEN not
clear
iffrom thehelp construction
is take‐PFV‐3P‐HON
a complex verb or a shahajjo
shahajjo
ni‐ech‐e‐n
c. 3SG.HON uni 3SG.HON 1SG.GEN from 3SG.HON complex
from 3SG.HON 1SG.GEN from help help take‐PFV‐3P‐HON
take‐PFV‐3P‐HON
(O V) help (O V) take‐PFV‐3P‐HON
uni verb
amar theke theke speaker and other sociolinguistic factors e.g., [27]. Therefore, a word like record usually always regular
object
verb
construction.
Therefore,
for
the
purpose
of
this
paper,
I
restrict
the discussion
and
‘He/She has taken help from me.’ 3SG.HON ‘He/She has taken help from me.’ from ‘He/She has taken help from me.’ from ‘He/She has taken help from me.’ help take‐PFV‐3P‐HON
4.3. Literature Review on Bilingual Complex Verbs 3SG.HON 1SG.GEN 1SG.GEN help take‐PFV‐3P‐HON
carries a stress on the second syllable, irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. analysis
only
to
the
X
+
do
constructions;
that
is,
constructions
involving
a
noun
and/or
verb
along
In this section, I review some previous studies on bilingual verb structures. ‘He/She has taken help from me.’ ‘He/She has taken help from me.’ The forms of complex verbs were coded and analyzed: N(Beng) + kɔra; V(Eng) + kɔra; with
thefollowing helping verb
‘do’.
N(Eng) + kɔra; N/V(Eng) + kɔra. 4.3. Literature
Review on Bilingual Complex Verbs
Following the coding of the complex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating the occurrence these verbs for films of each decade to ascertain the overall In frequencies this section, of I review
some of previous
studies
onthe bilingual
verb
structures.
distribution of complex verbs in the data. The frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each Apart from Bengali, bilingual complex verbs also occur frequently in CS between other Indian
languages and English. Romaine [3] reports the occurrence of these verbs in bilingual Punjabi–English
Languages 2016, 1, 5
8 of 17
speech. In her data, the complex verbs consist of English nouns, verbs, verbal nouns (such as lobbying)
or phrasal verbs (such as pick up) alongside Punjabi helping verbs such as karna ‘do’ and hona ‘be’.
Romaine (using the term operators for these verbs) shows that ‘do’ and ‘be’ distinguish the stativity of
the structures, in that ‘do’ occurs in actional constructions and ‘be’ in stative ones. The operators modify
the English nominal or verbal elements and bear inflections. Romaine uses the term compound verb to
refer to these structures and says that there is a tendency for English verbs to occur more frequently
than English nouns in such structures.
Annamalai [4], in his analysis on Tamil–English bilingual speech, distinguishes between structures
such as try pannu ‘try’ (V + ‘do’) and business pannu ‘do business’ (N + ‘do’). He argues that bilingual
Tamil–English V + ‘do’ structures are different from bilingual N + ‘do’ structures because accusative
case can be optionally added to business, but not to try, and so he argues that business is a noun and
not a verb. In addition, dummy verb (Annamalai uses this term for helping verbs) ‘do’ is added
after a main verb as a carrier of inflection. In a later study Annamalai [5] furthers a hypothesis about
balanced bilinguals and imbalanced bilinguals (people who are stronger in Tamil than in English) in
their use of bilingual N + ‘do’ and V + ‘do’ structures. He says that groups of bilingual speakers can
be distinguished on the basis of the types of mixed compounds they use. This is because imbalanced
bilinguals conform to the N + ‘do’ structures of native Tamil by using structures such as ‘reservation
do’ whereas balanced bilinguals would tend to use structures such as ‘reserve do’, which are changes
in bilingual speech, because in monolingual Tamil a V + ‘do’ construction cannot occur.
Bilingual N + ‘do’ structures have been distinguished from bilingual V + ‘do’ structures in many
language pairs across the world [9]. Muysken [9] argues that the insertion of foreign or native nouns
alongside helping verbs and the use of foreign verbs alongside helping verbs in the recipient language
constitute different processes. In the noun insertion strategy, there is a process of insertion of the
foreign noun in the position of a native noun. However, the occurrence of a foreign lexical verb beside
the helping verb from a matrix language (usually considered to be the dominant language of the
bilingual speaker) is a process of adjunction of the foreign verb to a matrix language verb ‘do’. He
argues that this process of verb adjunction is an example of alternational code-switching between the
lexical verb from the embedded language (usually the non-dominant language of a bilingual) and
the helping verb from the matrix language. The foreign verbs in the complex verb structures are not
borrowings, because they are not phonologically adapted to the recipient language. They also happen
to be quite productive in the recipient language [9] (pp. 193–206).
It has also been postulated that some bilingual complex verbs emerge as a result of the
grammaticalization of the helping verbs. That is, these constructions initially start as N + ‘do’
constructions but later go on to become V + ‘do’ constructions [9] (p. 213), [5] (p. 51). In his investigation
of three generations of Turkish immigrants in the Netherlands, Backus [8] found that more proficient
bilinguals of Turkish and Dutch had more V + ‘do’ constructions than less proficient bilinguals or
mostly monolingual speakers, who had more N + ‘do’ constructions (similar to Annamalai’s [5]
observation of Tamil–English bilinguals). The first generation of Turkish immigrants that Backus
studied consisted of people who were dominant in Turkish and knew minimal Dutch. These people
immigrated to the Netherlands as adults. The second generation of Turkish immigrants were born in
Turkey and immigrated to the Netherlands at a very young age. The third generation of immigrants
consisted of people who were born in the Netherlands to Turkish immigrant parents. The second and
third generation speakers were bilingual in Turkish and Dutch. When these people spoke Turkish,
Backus found that the third generation speakers had mostly V + ‘do’ constructions in their speech.
The root verbs were from Dutch and the ‘do’ verbs were from Turkish. Backus found that the first
generation of Turkish speakers used mostly N + ‘do’ and the second generation of speakers had a
mix of both N + ‘do’ and V + ‘do’ constructions in their Turkish. This finding lends support to the
hypothesis that the V + ‘do’ constructions derive from their nominal counterparts.
There have also been opposing claims about the status of the foreign verbal element in the
complex verb structures. Scholars such as Moravcsik [38] have argued that if a language borrows a
Languages 2016, 1, 5
9 of 17
verbal element from another language, then it will be borrowed in the form of a nominal element.
According to Moravcsik, verbs cannot be borrowed in the form of verbs, and a borrowed verbal
element will always behave like a nominal element in the recipient language, since they require a
helping verb to appear beside them, which then verbalizes the construction.3 More recently, Wichmann
and Wohlgemuth [11] and Wohlgemuth [12] have argued that verbs are often borrowed as non-verbs
in recipient languages, and not necessarily as nouns as Moravscik [38] has claimed. They argue that
the foreign elements that occur in these bilingual structures can either be nouns or verbs (that is, they
are identical in form to the nouns and verbs of the foreign language) but the recipient language does
not specify their part of speech [11] (pp. 2–5), [12] (pp. 104–111).
The literature discussed above shows two different strands in the analysis of bilingual verbs.
While Muysken [9], Romaine [3], Backus [8] and Annamalai [5] distinguish between N + ‘do’ and
V + ‘do’ constructions structurally, for others, these two are similar structures. Based on the work of
Muysken, Romaine, Backus and Annamalai, there seems to be a structural distinction between an
N + ‘do’ construction and a V + ‘do’ construction in bilingual speech. In line with these observations
for other language pairs, Bengali–English bilingual speech shows a higher frequency of occurrence
of English verbs than English nouns (as also shown by Annamalai [5] in the case of balanced and
imbalanced bilinguals of Tamil and English).
Below I try to analyze the bilingual verbs in the Bengali films as a domain involving structural
changes. I partially draw from previous analyses of bilingual verbs in my explanations of the bilingual
verbs of Bengali.
5. Analysis of BCV Use in the Bengali Films
This section provides a quantitative account of the occurrence of complex verbs in the films from
each decade, with a specific focus on the occurrence of bilingual verbs. I first discuss the occurrence
of complex verbs in the films of the 1970s, then the films of the 1990s and then in those of post-2010.
Following that I compare the occurrence of complex verbs in the films across the three decades and
discuss how the occurrence of bilingual verbs has not only increased considerably over the years but
also undergone structural changes.
5.1. Distribution of Complex Verbs in the Films of the Three Decades
5.1.1. Distribution of Complex Verbs in the Films of 1970s
In the films of the 1970s we find that the occurrence of bilingual complex verbs was much less
frequent than the occurrence of monolingual Bengali complex verbs. Table 2 below provides the
frequency of occurrence of complex verbs in the films of this period.
Table 2. Frequency of occurrence of complex verbs in the films of 1970s
Complex verbs N = 236
Films of 1970s
N(Beng) + ‘do’ %
N(Eng) + ‘do’ %
N/V(Eng) + ‘do’ %
V(Eng) + ‘do’ %
85.16
1.69
9.74
3.38
As Table 2 above shows, about 85% of the complex verbs in the films of the 1970s were monolingual
Bengali in nature, that is they had the N(Beng) + ‘do’ form. The remaining 15% of complex verbs
were bilingual verbs or mixed verbs. Among these verbs, roughly 10% had the N/V(Eng) + ‘do’ form,
3
This generalization is surprising, given that in some languages verbs can be borrowed as verbs, such as French Quebecois
verbs such as tier ‘to tie (one’s shoe laces)’ + French infinitival suffix –er. It’s usually presented as a borrowing from English
due to phonological adaptation, but it is a case of a verb being borrowed as a verb (Marlyse Baptista, p.c. [39]).
Languages 2016, 1, 5
10 of 17
which means that the lexical element from English, occurring before the ‘do’ verb of Bengali, could
either be analyzed as a noun or a verb as shown in example (6) below.
6.
aapni
ei
shOb
tribes der ke
study korechen
2SG.HON DEM
all
tribes PL ACC
study do-PFV.3P-HON
‘You have studied all of these tribes/You have done studies on all of these tribes.’
In this example, the word study cannot be analyzed as only a noun or a verb, since the word
study could be used both as a noun, such as in the sentence, I did the study only recently or as a verb
in the sentence, I studied this only recently. Therefore, examples such as these have been categorized
as N/V(Eng) + ‘do’. In addition, only about 3% of the bilingual verbs in the films from this decade
involved an English verb and about 2% of them involved an English noun.
5.1.2. Distribution of Complex Verbs in the Films of 1990s
The frequency of occurrence of complex verbs in the films of the 1990s is provided in the
table below.
From Table 3 we see that the percentage of occurrence of bilingual verbs not only increased in
the films of the 1990s but also doubled in comparison to those of the 1970s. That is, almost 30% of
the complex verbs in the films of the 1990s were of the bilingual type and about 70% were of the
monolingual Bengali type. Of the bilingual verbs that occurred in the films of the 1990s, about 9%
had the N/V(Eng) + ‘do’ form and about 8% involved an English noun, while about 12% involved an
English verb. Therefore, those bilingual verbs, which involved an English verb, had a slightly higher
percentage of about 4% than those involving an English noun. Even though the difference between
N(Eng) + ‘do’ and V(Eng) + ‘do’ structures in the films of the 1990s is not very much and therefore
perhaps not noteworthy, in the films post-2010, the difference increases dramatically.
Table 3. Frequency of occurrence of complex verbs in the films of 1990s.
Complex verbs N = 214
Films of 1990s
N(Beng) + ‘do’ %
N(Eng) + ‘do’ %
N/V(Eng) + ‘do’ %
V(Eng) + ‘do’ %
71.02
7.94
8.87
12.14
5.1.3. Distribution of Complex Verbs in the Films post-2010
The frequency of occurrence of complex verbs in the films post-2010 is provided in Table 4. Table 4
shows that in the films of the 2010s, only about 34% of the complex verbs are of the monolingual
Bengali type, while almost 66% are of the bilingual type. This is a drastic increase from the films of
the 1990s where only about 30% of the complex verbs were bilingual. This increase is even more in
comparison to the films of the 1970s where only about 15% of the complex verbs were of the bilingual
type. Furthermore, the frequency of the V(Eng) + ‘do’ structure has also increased in the films of this
decade and is at about 32%, which is almost double than that of the frequency of the N(Eng) + ‘do’
structure. The N/V(Eng) + ‘do’ structure has a frequency rate of about 19%. The frequency of the
V(Eng) + ‘do’ structure in the post-2010 films is also double the frequency of the same structure in
the films of the 1990s. This means that not only has the share of bilingual verbs increased in general
in recent decades, but the share of this particular structure has also increased as compared to other
bilingual verbal structures involving English nouns.
Figure 1 summarizes the frequency of occurrence of complex verbs in the films of the
three decades.
Figure 1 shows that the share of bilingual verbs has increased greatly in the recent decades and
that almost 65% of the complex verbs in Bengali are now bilingual in nature. Similarly, the increase in
the frequency of the V(Eng) + ‘do’ structure in recent years is also noteworthy because in the 1970s,
Languages 2016, 1, 5
11 of 17
only about 3% of the complex verbs were of this type, while in the 1990s, only about 12% were of this
Languages
2016, 1, 5in the films post-2010, more than 30% of the complex verbs have the V(Eng) +
11‘do’
of 17
type.
However
structure. The rate of increase of other bilingual verbs involving the N(Eng) + ‘do’ structure and the
Table 4. Frequency of occurrence of complex verbs in the films of 2010s
N/V(Eng) + ‘do’ structure is also important to point out since in the films of the 2010s, these structures
also
doubled
in comparison to the 1990s. This massiveComplex
increase inverbs
the use of bilingual verbs leads us to
Films
of 2010s
examine the factors that may have caused this increase and
N = what
297 this means for the Bengali verbal
system. However, before
I
delve
into
that
issue,
I
will
briefly
examine
the+ data
in qualitative
N(Beng) + ‘do’ %
N(Eng) + ‘do’ % N/V(Eng)
‘do’ %
(Eng) + terms.
‘do’ %
34.34
14.47
18.87
Table 4. Frequency of occurrence of complex verbs in the films of 2010s.
32.32
Figure 1 summarizes the frequency of occurrence of complex verbs in the films of the three
Films of 2010s
Complex verbs N = 297
decades.
N(Beng) + ‘do’ %
N(Eng) + ‘do’ %
N/V(Eng) + ‘do’ %
(Eng) + ‘do’ %
Figure 1. 34.34
Frequency of occurrence
of complex verbs in18.87
the films of the three 32.32
decades
14.47
N(Beng) + do
100
N(Eng) + do
N/V(Eng) + do
80
Percent
V(Eng) + do
60
40
20
0
1970s
1990s
2010s
Decades
Figure 1. Frequency of occurrence of complex verbs in the films of the three decades.
Figure 1 shows that the share of bilingual verbs has increased greatly in the recent decades and
that almost 65% of the complex verbs in Bengali are now bilingual in nature. Similarly, the increase
5.2. Qualitative Examination of Bilingual Complex Verb Use in the Films of the Three Decades
in the frequency of the V(Eng) + ‘do’ structure in recent years is also noteworthy because in the 1970s,
this section
I focus
moreverbs
closely
on the
types
of complex
verbs
usedonly
in the
films12%
from
the of
three
onlyInabout
3% of the
complex
were
of this
type,
while in the
1990s,
about
were
this
periods.
As we saw
fromfilms
Figure
1 in the previous
section,
almost
85% of the
complex
in the 1970s
type. However
in the
post-2010,
more than
30% of
the complex
verbs
haveverbs
the V(Eng)
+ ‘do’
films
were of
therate
monolingual
This percentage
included
regularly
in
structure.
The
of increaseBengali
of othertype.
bilingual
verbs involving
the verbs,
N(Eng)which
+ ‘do’occur
structure
and the
everyday
as shuru,
which
means ‘start’
and out
bæbohar,
as 2010s,
well asthese
less
N/V(Eng)speech
+ ‘do’such
structure
is also
important
to point
sincewhich
in themeans
films ‘use’
of the
frequently
verbsin
such
as jorimanato‘fine’
and apshosh
bilingual
films
structuresoccurring
also doubled
comparison
the 1990s.
This ‘regret’.
massive Most
increase
in theverbs
use in
of the
bilingual
ofverbs
this decade
reservedthe
forfactors
Englishthat
words
either
do not
Bengali
or words
leads uswere
to examine
maythat
have
caused
thishave
increase
andequivalents
what this means
forfor
the
which
theverbal
Bengali
equivalents
are rarely
used,
such into
as phone,
telegram
and the
application.
Bengali
system.
However,
before
I delve
that post,
issue,money
I willorder,
briefly
examine
data in
In comparison,
qualitative
terms. the films of the 1990s had a higher share of bilingual verbs (almost 30%) and a
closer examination of those films reveal that in several cases the use of bilingual verbs are context
5.2. Qualitative
Examination
of Bilingual
Complex
Verb aUse
in theuse
Films
the Threeverbs
Decades
specific.
This means
that specific
contexts
triggered
higher
of of
bilingual
as compared to
other contexts where bilingual verbs were not as commonly used. For example, the central character
In this section I focus more closely on the types of complex verbs used in the films from the
in the 1992 film, Agantuk (The Stranger) [23] is an anthropologist who has extensively researched tribal
three periods. As we saw from Figure 1 in the previous section, almost 85% of the complex verbs in
cultures around the world. Therefore, when this character describes his travels, studies and research
the 1970s films were of the monolingual Bengali type. This percentage included verbs, which occur
of tribal cultures and customs, he uses several English verbs, such as sponsor, prove, verify, introduce,
regularly in everyday speech such as shuru, which means ‘start’ and bæbohar, which means ‘use’ as
study, etc. Topics such as, education, professions, jobs often trigger the use of English words since
well as less frequently occurring verbs such as jorimana ‘fine’ and apshosh ‘regret’. Most bilingual
higher education in India is conducted almost entirely in English. Therefore, the use of English words
verbs in the films of this decade were reserved for English words that either do not have Bengali
in this context is not entirely surprising and in fact is even expected. We also find that the use of
equivalents or words for which the Bengali equivalents are rarely used, such as phone, post, money
bilingual verbs in the films of this decade is limited to topics such as education, medicine, photography
order, telegram and application.
In comparison, the films of the 1990s had a higher share of bilingual verbs (almost 30%) and a
closer examination of those films reveal that in several cases the use of bilingual verbs are context
specific. This means that specific contexts triggered a higher use of bilingual verbs as compared to
other contexts where bilingual verbs were not as commonly used. For example, the central character
from three decades, the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall stigation 13] reported of code‐switching a diachronic investigation in Bollywood of films code‐switching in Bollywood films use of English in the films of this period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It s study found a massive increase in the overall the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall was further reported that the code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex y observable in the speech of young speakers. It films of this period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It over the years involving more alternations between chunks of Hindi and English as compared to d that the code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex rns in these films became increasingly complex Languages
2016, 1, as 5chunks 12 of 17
insertions of English words in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good n ving chunks more of alternations Hindi and English between of Hindi compared to and English as compared to illustration of how media data can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns words in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good in broad trends occurring in the speech patterns edia data can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns and of a community. The present study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use law, whereas in the case of discussions on food, household chores, family values or descriptions of
of bilingual verbs over time and makes use of a similar methodology. rpose, which is to determine changes in the use present study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use people,
bilingual verbs do not figure that often.
lar methodology. er time and makes use of a similar methodology. The use of bilingual verbs in the films of recent years is however surprising. In these films, we
Coding and Data Analysis find that bilingual verbs are not only used in instances where they are expected because of the context
ysis In the films that were analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + or topic (such
as discussions connected with education or professions) but also in cases where they
‘do’ For
form were coded. included complex verbs
verbs such bikri kkɔra do’, which ll the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + were analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + are not.
example,
in the These 2013 film,
Hawa Bengali Badal, bilingual
such
asas employ
ra, ‘sale ‘to employ’,
means to sell. I use the form N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb mplex ed. These verbs included such publicize
as Bengali complex verbs such as bikri kkɔra bikri ‘sale do’, which do’, which kkɔra ra,
‘to publicize’
and promote
ra, ‘sale ‘to promote’
are used in the setting of a multinational
that was included bilingual complex verbs such as, global
renovate kɔra ‘to and
renovate’, which is a he form N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb ent these verbs. The other type of complex verb company.
Thiscoded is expected
because
English
is the language
of the
economy
using English
uded such as, bilingual renovate complex kɔra combination of an English verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. ‘to renovate’, which as, renovate is a kɔra ‘to renovate’, which is a bilingual verbs are used in the context
verbs
inverbs such asuch context
is normal.
However,
we also
find that
nglish verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. of a The example discussion kɔra ‘to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from family setting, which are also in the case of frequently occurring actions such as use, start, try,
h includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from on kɔra ‘to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from stop,Bengali, represented with the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. etc. Even for the same complex verb, when the films of the 1970s use a monolingual Bengali verb,
The fourth type was record ‘to start,
record’, which an asEnglish lexical with the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. he third type of complex verb that was coded. the films
post-2010
useof itscomplex bilingualverb counterpart,
suchkɔra as use,
try, stop
andincludes deny. Also
expected,
element that could be which as of
both noun and a verb (specifically the context of Indian complex verb was ‘to record’, which includes record kɔra an ‘to English record’, lexical includes an a English lexical most
bilingual
verbs
occur
inanalyzed the speech
young,
English
educated
speakers as in compared
to middle
English) with a of ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with through
the form N/V(Eng)+‘do’. In standard nd be a analyzed verb (specifically as both in noun the and context a verb Indian (specifically in the context of connected
Indian ageda or
older
speakers,
since
these
young
speakers
are
technology
to a globalized
varieties English, there is N/V(Eng)+‘do’. a distinction récord, where the stress is on the first syllable, ’ ed verb with from the Bengali, form N/V(Eng)+‘do’. represented with In standard the form standard world,
which of requires
them
to speak
English onbetween a In daily
basis.
when it is used as a noun and recórd, where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. there is a distinction between récord, where the stress is rise
on the récord, first use
where syllable, the stress verbs
is on in
the first syllable, The
in
the
of bilingual
the
films
post-2010 is reflective of the deep inroads
a distinction is usually not found varieties of Indian where stress noun and recórd, where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. s is on the second syllable when used as a verb. that However, English hassuch made
in Indian society,
especially
in thein speech
of young
urbanEnglish, dwellers.
While
in is usually on a heavy syllable and in some cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the stinction in varieties is usually of Indian English, found decades
in where varieties stress of is Indian English, where thenot previous
the use
of bilingual
verbs
were stress much is more context specific and topic specific,
and other sociolinguistic nowadays
factors e.g., [27]. word informal
like record usually always n arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the syllable and in some cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the suchspeaker as education
and employment,
they
are Therefore, used even a within
interpersonal
carries a stress on the second syllable, irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. ociolinguistic Therefore, a factors word like e.g., record [27]. usually Therefore, always a word record usually always communications
such as,
within
thelike family.
The following forms of complex verbs were coded and analyzed: N(Beng) + kɔra; V(Eng) + kɔra; e second syllable, irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. 5.3.
Discussion
the analyzed: Results
N(Eng) + kɔra; N/V(Eng) + kɔra. d s and of complex analyzed: verbs N(Beng) were coded + kɔra; of
and V(Eng) + kɔra; N(Beng) + kɔra; V(Eng) + kɔra; Following the coding of the complex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating ng) + kɔra. This section discusses the results of the quantitative and qualitative examination of bilingual verb
the frequencies occurrence verbs films of each decade to we
ascertain the overall oding of the complex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating use in
the
films of theof three
decadesof asthese was laid
outfor in the the previous
sections.
What
observe
from
distribution of complex verbs in the data. The frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each ccurrence e films of of these verbs for the each decade to ascertain films the of overall each decade to ascertain the overall the previous sections is the fact that the share of bilingual verbs has increased drastically in recent
uencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each lex verbs in the data. The frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each years as compared to the films of the 1990s and 1970s where only as much as 30% of the complex
verbs were bilingual. First, and perhaps most obviously, since English use has in general increased
drastically in India in recent years, particularly due to the spread of globalization, technology and
Western influences through the media, the increase in the use of bilingual verbs is expected. As a
consequence, we also expect that the media and films, which draw from the real world, will reflect a
similar phenomenon, which is what the films examined in this paper show. As mentioned before, in
a closely related study by Si [13] on the use of code-switching in Hindi films, we find a very similar
trend, where Hindi films of the 2000s show a major increase in code-switching including more complex
code-switching as compared to Hindi films of the 1980s.
Secondly, an increase of bilingual verb use in the films of the recent decades indicate a restructuring
of the Bengali verbal system where the majority of complex verbs are bilingual in nature, and where
English lexical elements (nominal and verbal) are allowed to freely occur alongside the helping verbs
of Bengali.
Based on the studies by Muysken [9], Backus [8], Annamalai [4,5] and Romaine [3], one could also
argue for another dimension to the morphosyntactic change in the X + do verbal structures, comparing
the recent films to those of the 1970s. This change lies in the occurrence of the V(Eng) + ‘do’ structure;
in monolingual Bengali only Bengali nouns (and adjectives) can grammatically occur in complex verbs
before the ‘do’ verb, while in bilingual Bengali different English elements including nouns, verbs,
verbal nouns and phrasal verbs are allowed as part of complex verbs. I argue that the English verbs
can now combine with Bengali helping verbs as a result of a structural reanalysis in modern Bengali
speech. This is because Bengali furnishes the X + do structure, but the native X + do construction only
licenses a noun in the place of X, but in contact with English, the co-occurrence of English verbs with
Bengali ‘do’ in V + ‘do’ is not only licensed but also far exceeds the occurrence of English nouns in
N + ‘do’ complex verbs (as evidenced in the post-2010 films).
er reported that the code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It e class. All of the films deal with of issues of inter‐personal Secondly, the characters the films typically belong to the same socio‐economic status groups, ties in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of uages 2016, 1, 5 Languages 2016, 1, 5 Languages 2016, 1, 5 4 of 17 4 of 17 4 of 17 4 of 17 4 of 17 4 of 17 4 of 17
years involving more alternations between chunks of such Hindi and English as compared to 4 of 17 de‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex between lovers and Languages 2016, 1, 5 touch upon secondary themes specifically the middle/upper‐middle class. All as of the films deal with issues of inter‐personal West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. of English words in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good lternations between chunks of the Hindi and English as compared to touch upon secondary themes such as n life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. within family and groups, between lovers and ly belong relationships to the same socio‐economic status Methodology y 3. Methodology 3. Methodology 3. Methodology n of how media data can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns e structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they material and intellectual aspirations in life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. All of the films deal with issues of inter‐personal Languages
2016,
1, 5
13 of 17
paper, I analyze a total of 6 Bengali films from three decades, the 1970s, rpose of this paper, I analyze a total of 6 Bengali films from three decades, the 1970s, 6 Bengali films from three decades, the 1970s, alyze a total of 6 Bengali films from three decades, the 1970s, For the purpose of this paper, I analyze a total of 6 Bengali films from three decades, the 1970s, For the purpose of this paper, I analyze a total of 6 Bengali films from three decades, the 1970s,
munity. The present study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use n be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns For the purpose of this paper, I analyze a total of 6 Bengali films from three decades, the 1970s, The films also all belong to the genre of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they n lovers and touch upon For the purpose of this paper, I analyze a total of 6 Bengali films from three decades, the 1970s, secondary themes such as post‐2010. I examine two films from each decade. I chose to examine films from three o films from each decade. I chose to examine films from three 1990s and post‐2010. I examine two films from each decade. I chose to examine films from three h decade. I chose to examine films from three amine two films from each decade. I chose to examine films from three the 1990s and post‐2010. I examine two films from each decade. I chose to examine films from three the 1990s and post‐2010. I examine two films from each decade. I chose to examine films from three the 1990s and post‐2010. I examine two films from each decade. I chose to examine films from three
al verbs over time and makes use of a similar methodology. dy has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use achronic investigation of code‐switching in Bollywood films have a run time of around two hours. memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. des erent ective o achronic get in decades order a of diachronic different perspective bilingual to A in get order decades a perspective different diachronic of by to bilingual get in and decades order a of diachronic perspective different bilingual to in get order a perspective of diachronic to bilingual get in and a order of diachronic perspective bilingual to get and perspective a of diachronic bilingual of perspective bilingual of of bilingual verb use of verb possible use and verb of use possible verb of possible use verb of use possible and verb of possible use Bollywood and verb use possible and verb of possible use and of possible
makes use of a similar methodology. and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall study Si [13] a decades diachronic investigation of code‐switching edy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they I would
likereported to propose
a hypothesis
about why more
English verbsin than nouns arefilms used in the
d Data Analysis nges that may have occurred. ay have occurred. red. changes that may have occurred. changes that may have occurred. changes that may have occurred. od, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It from three decades, the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall bilingual X + do structures in recent times. Intuitively (based on my judgments as a native speaker of
Mumbai, ilm based arly Like industry known the in popularly Mumbai, film as based Like industry Bollywood, the popularly in known Mumbai, film based Like as there industry known the Bollywood, in popularly are Mumbai, film based several as Like industry Bollywood, there known popularly the in Mumbai, film based are as several there industry Bollywood, known in popularly Mumbai, are as based several Bollywood, there known popularly in Mumbai, are as several there Bollywood, known popularly are as several Bollywood, there known are as several there Bollywood, are several there are several
witching patterns in these films became increasingly complex use of English in the films of this period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It c investigation of code‐switching in Bollywood films e films that were analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + bilingual
Bengali–English),
a distinctive,
yet subtle interpretation seems plausible for Bengali–English
m age es ich onal industries in based produce language India, regional film which in numerous based industries India, language produce regional film which films in industries numerous based India, produce language every regional film which year in numerous films based industries India, and produce language every film which films in industries year numerous India, based produce every and film which year in films numerous India, industries and produce every which films year in numerous produce India, every and which year films numerous and produce every films year numerous every and year films and every year and
ations chunks of Hindi and English as compared was further reported that the code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex 0s. This study found a massive increase in the overall were between coded. These Bengali complex verbs such as bikri kɔra ‘sale do’, which zed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + V + included ‘do’
complex
verbs,
in examples
such
asto advertise
k ra ‘to
advertise’,
as opposed to N + ‘do’ complex
oy a large amount of viewership. Among these, is the Bengali film industry based in the city of wership. Among these, is the Bengali film industry based in the city of mount of viewership. Among these, is the Bengali film industry based in the city of the Bengali film industry based in the city of mong these, is the Bengali film industry based in the city of enjoy a large amount of viewership. Among these, is the Bengali film industry based in the city of enjoy a large amount of viewership. Among these, is the Bengali film industry based in the city of enjoy a large amount of viewership. Among these, is the Bengali film industry based in the city of
cture of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good over the years involving more alternations between chunks of Hindi and English as compared to cifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It sell. I use the form N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb cluded Bengali complex verbs such as bikri kkɔra ‘sale do’, which verbs such
as advertisement
ra ‘doing
advertising’.
In the former case, the action of advertising is
kata, sometimes referred to as Tollywood. The films I analyze for this paper were all produced in s I analyze for this paper were all produced in wood. The films I analyze for this paper were all produced in to as Tollywood. The films I analyze for this paper were all produced in mes referred to as Tollywood. The films I analyze for this paper were all produced in Kolkata, sometimes referred to as Tollywood. The films I analyze for this paper were all produced in Kolkata, sometimes referred to as Tollywood. The films I analyze for this paper were all produced in Kolkata, sometimes referred to as Tollywood. The films I analyze for this paper were all produced in
used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns insertions of English words in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good patterns in these films became increasingly complex coded included bilingual complex verbs such seems
as, renovate kɔra ‘to renovate’, which is a of expressing the action of
eng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb being done,
whereas
the latter
like a more
indirect,
periphrastic
way
s and include Chadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], hadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], ithin the past forty years and include Chadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], industry within the past forty years and include Chadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], forty years and include Chadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], this industry within the past forty years and include Chadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], this industry within the past forty years and include Chadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], this industry within the past forty years and include Chadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22],
as a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use illustration of how media data can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns etween chunks of advertising.
Hindi and English as compared on of an English verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. ual complex verbs such as, renovate kɔra ‘to which indicates
is a Semantically,
therenovate’, latter to structure
that one is doing an action, which happens to
shti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) [24], Maach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) [23], Unishe April (1994) [24], Maach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) ntuk (1992) [23], Unishe April (1994) [24], Maach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) pril (1994) [24], Maach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) Agantuk (1992) [23], Unishe April (1994) [24], Maach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) Agantuk (1992) [23], Unishe April (1994) [24], Maach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) Agantuk (1992) [23], Unishe April (1994) [24], Maach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013)
s use of a similar methodology. of a community. The present study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good ple discussion kɔra ‘to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from nd a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. be advertising. Extending this interpretation to examples with other verbs or nouns that occur in the
based on similarities in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of were chosen based on similarities in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of imilarities in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of eir settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of . The films were chosen based on similarities in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of [26]. The films were chosen based on similarities in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of [26]. The films were chosen based on similarities in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of [26]. The films were chosen based on similarities in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of
of bilingual verbs over time and makes use of a similar methodology. ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns epresented with the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. o discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from films, it seems that in Bengali–English bilingual verb structures, some English nouns are incapable of
ngal and depict narratives of urban characters. se films are all based in the urban areas of West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. all based in the urban areas of West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. eas of West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. e urban areas of West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. these films are all based in the urban areas of West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. these films are all based in the urban areas of West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. these films are all based in the urban areas of West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters.
ilar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use h type of complex verb was the
record kɔra ‘to record’, which includes an English lexical rm N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. contributing
same
semantic
information
to the complex
verb as
English verbs are able to. Three
Coding and Data Analysis characters ondly, g typically the to films the the belong Secondly, typically of characters the to films belong the Secondly, of typically characters the to films the the belong typically Secondly, of characters the to films the belong the of typically the characters to films the belong typically of the to films the belong typically to the belong to the same socio‐economic same socio‐economic status same groups, socio‐economic status same groups, socio‐economic status same groups, socio‐economic status same groups, socio‐economic status same groups, socio‐economic status same groups, socio‐economic status groups, status groups,
a similar methodology. hat was could be analyzed as both a noun and a which
verb (specifically in the context of difference.
Indian rb record kɔra ‘to record’, which includes an English or the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + examples
are provided
below
attemptlexical to illustrate
this subtle
In (7a), the monolingual
cifically er‐middle he class. middle/upper‐middle films All the specifically deal class. of middle/upper‐middle the with All films specifically issues of the class. the deal middle/upper‐middle of films with All inter‐personal the specifically of deal class. issues middle/upper‐middle the with All films of of issues inter‐personal the deal class. the middle/upper‐middle of films with All inter‐personal of issues deal class. the with All of films inter‐personal of issues deal the class. films of with All inter‐personal deal issues of the with of films inter‐personal issues deal of with inter‐personal issues of inter‐personal
with a ‘do’ verb from represented with the ‘denial
form N/V(Eng)+‘do’. standard as Bengali both a complex noun and a Bengali, verb (specifically in the context of Indian ed verbs such as bikri iskɔra ‘sale do’, which In the films that were analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + Bengali
complex
verb
sshikar
kOra,
do’
which meansIn denying
in English. In bilingual Bengali
within mily between tionships and and touch the lovers between relationships within family upon and the and secondary lovers touch relationships family between within and upon and themes touch the lovers secondary between within relationships family upon such and the and as lovers secondary touch themes family between within and upon such and themes touch the lovers secondary as between family upon such and and lovers themes secondary as touch between and upon such themes touch secondary as lovers upon such and secondary themes as touch upon such themes as secondary such as themes such as
of English, there is a were distinction between récord, where stress is verbs on structure,
the first syllable, Bengali, represented with the form In the standard ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb ‘do’ form coded. These included Bengali complex such as bikri kkɔra ‘sale do’, (7b)
which speech
however,
the N/V(Eng)+‘do’. same
complex
verb
has
a V+’do’
deny
ra ‘to
deny’
because it
of the past and the search for one’s identity. erial and intellectual aspirations in life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. irations in life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. tellectual aspirations in life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. material and intellectual aspirations in life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. material and intellectual aspirations in life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. material and intellectual aspirations in life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity.
used as a noun and recórd, where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. istinction between récord, the ‘to stress is on the first of
syllable, omplex verbs such as, renovate kɔra renovate’, which is a means to sell. I use the form N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb aper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + seems
to where be a more
straightforward
way
expressing
the act of denying. In comparison, the bilingual
The films also all belong to the genre of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they The films also all belong to the genre of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they The films also all belong to the genre of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they
mas and have comparable lengths in that they of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they all belong to the genre of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they films also all belong to the genre of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they he genre of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they such a distinction usually not varieties of Indian English, where stress is órd, where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. that was coded bilingual complex verbs such as, renovate kɔra ‘to renovate’, a a more
ali complex verbs as included bikri ‘sale in do’, which Nsuch +is ‘do’
denial
kkɔra rafound might
not
be the preferred
choice
(7c),
because
intuitively,
it which seems is like
wo hours. e of around two hours. e a run time of around two hours. have a run time of around two hours. have a run time of around two hours. have a run time of around two hours. n a heavy syllable and in some cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the usually not found in varieties of Indian English, where stress ussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from combination of an English verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb complex,
periphrastic
way
of expressing
the actis of denying something. In (7c), the meaning of the
orted y gation chronic A Si study [13] a of diachronic investigation reported code‐switching by Si A [13] study a investigation diachronic reported of by code‐switching A in Si study Bollywood [13] a investigation diachronic of reported by code‐switching Si A films [13] in study a investigation Bollywood reported diachronic of by code‐switching in Si Bollywood a [13] films diachronic investigation of reported code‐switching in films Bollywood investigation a of diachronic code‐switching in Bollywood films of investigation code‐switching in films Bollywood of code‐switching in Bollywood films in films Bollywood films
nd other sociolinguistic factors e.g., [27]. which Therefore, a act
word like record usually always in some cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the (Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. The example discussion kɔra ‘to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from verbs such as, renovate kɔra ‘to corresponds
renovate’, is a an
complex
verb
to ‘doing
of denial’,
which
sounds
too awkward for use.
m three decades, the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall 0s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall study found a massive increase in the overall ades, the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall nd 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall from three decades, the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall from three decades, the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall from three decades, the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall
tress on the second syllable, irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. c factors e.g., ‘to [27]. Therefore, a word like an record usually always sheta
as record kɔra record’, which includes English lexical Bengali, represented with the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. b from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. (N(Beng)+’do’)
7a.
tomake
bhalo
bashi
Osshikar
korchi na
observable in the speech of young speakers. It d, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It n the films of this period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It of English in the films of this period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It this period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It use of English in the films of this period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It use of English in the films of this period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It use of English in the films of this period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It
wing of fourth complex verbs were coded and analyzed: N(Beng) + kɔra; which V(Eng) + do-PRS-1P-NEG
kɔra; an English lexical able, irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. oth a forms noun and a verb (specifically in good
the context of Indian The type of complex verb was record kɔra ‘to record’, includes , which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from 2SG-ACC
love-PRS.1P
that
denial
ported that the code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex s in these films became increasingly complex itching patterns in these films became increasingly complex e code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex further reported that the code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex was further reported that the code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex was further reported that the code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex was further reported that the code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex
‘(I)
am be not analyzed denying
thatas I + love
you.’
kɔra; N/V(Eng) + kɔra. x verbs were coded and analyzed: N(Beng) kɔra; + kɔra; gali, represented with the form N/V(Eng)+‘do’. In a V(Eng) standard element that could both noun and a verb (specifically in the context of Indian do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. ore chunks tions r involving the alternations years between of over Hindi more involving chunks the between alternations and years over English more of involving chunks Hindi the alternations between years and of over more Hindi involving English chunks the between alternations and years of more English Hindi chunks involving alternations between and of Hindi more chunks between alternations and English Hindi chunks between and of Hindi English chunks and of Hindi as and English to as compared to as compared as compared to English as to of compared as to compared as to English compared to compared as compared to
wing the coding of the complex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating tion between récord, where the verb stress is on Bengali, the lexical first represented syllable, with the form N/V(Eng)+‘do’. In standard with a includes ‘do’ from d kɔra ‘to English) record’, which an English b. insertions of English words in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good tui
toinsertions of English words in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good
baar baar
deny
kor-e
jacchish
(V(Eng)+’do’)
n the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good ture of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good ntences. Therefore, the study serves as a good rtions of English words in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good glish words in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good insertions of English words in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good encies of a occurrence these verbs for films of between each decade to ascertain overall complex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. varieties of of English, there is a the distinction récord, where the the stress is on the first syllable, oun and verb (specifically the context of Indian do-PFV.PTCP
do-PRS.PROG-3P
2SG in FOC
constantly
deny
stration of how media data can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns ta can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns sed to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns broad trends occurring in the speech patterns ow media data can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns illustration of how media data can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns illustration of how media data can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns illustration of how media data can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns
on of complex verbs in the data. The frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each ly these for the films of are
each decade to standard ascertain the overall not verbs found in varieties of Indian English, where stress is when it is used as a noun and recórd, where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. presented with the form N/V(Eng)+‘do’. In ‘You
constantly
denying
it.’
y. The present study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use s a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use t study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use community. The present study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use ose, which is to determine changes in the use of a community. The present study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use of a community. The present study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use of a community. The present study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use
the data. The frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each me cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the However, a distinction usually not found in varieties of Indian English, where stress is tween récord, where such the stress is on the is first syllable, and makes use of a similar methodology. r methodology. bs over time and makes use of a similar methodology. use of a similar methodology. ilingual verbs over time and makes use of a similar methodology. of bilingual verbs over time and makes use of a similar methodology. of bilingual verbs over time and makes use of a similar methodology. c. of bilingual verbs over time and makes use of a similar methodology. chatro-ta
accusation-ta-ke
denial
kor-ech-e
(N(Eng)+’do’)
tors e.g., usually on a heavy syllable and in some cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the [27]. Therefore, a word like record usually always he stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. Student-DEF
accusation-DEF-ACC deny
do-PFV-3P
irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. speaker and other sociolinguistic factors e.g., [27]. Therefore, a word like record usually always found in varieties of Indian English, where stress is ‘The student
has denied
the
accusation.’
a Analysis ing and Data Analysis Coding and Data Analysis Coding and Data Analysis Coding and Data Analysis bs were coded and analyzed: N(Beng) + kɔra; V(Eng) + kɔra; carries a stress on the second syllable, irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. es even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the nalyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + r the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + s that were analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + he occurrences of complex verbs with the X + In the films that were analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + In the films that were analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + Other
examples
ofIn the films that were analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X +
English
nouns
verbs
have these
subtle+ meaning
differences
The In the films that were analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + following forms of complex verbs were and
coded and that
analyzed: N(Beng) kɔra; V(Eng) + kɔra; include
., [27]. Therefore, a word like record usually always plex d e form coded. Bengali included verbs were These ‘do’ complex such Bengali coded. form included as verbs were These complex ‘do’ kkɔra Bengali form such coded. included verbs were as These complex ‘do’ such Bengali coded. form included as verbs These complex were such Bengali coded. included verbs as bikri complex These such Bengali included as verbs complex such Bengali verbs as bikri complex such as ‘sale verbs such as bikri bikri ‘sale do’, bikri which ‘sale bikri do’, which ‘sale do’, which ‘sale bikri do’, which ‘sale do’, which bikri do’, ‘sale do’, kkɔra which permit
ra/permission
kkɔra ra;
react
kkɔra ra/reaction
kkɔra ra;
decide
kkɔra ra/decision
kkɔra ra;
object
kkɔra rawhich /objection
ra ‘sale do’, which
plex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating N(Eng) + kɔra; N/V(Eng) + kɔra. ctive of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. nt these verbs. The other type of complex verb ans to sell. I use the form N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb use the form N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb means to sell. I use the form N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb means to sell. I use the form N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb means to sell. I use the form N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb
among
several
others.
verbs and for the films of each decade to V(Eng) ascertain the overall Following the coding of the complex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating e coded analyzed: N(Beng) + kɔra; + kɔra; d mplex lingual ch was included as, coded verbs renovate complex that bilingual included such was kɔra verbs as, coded ‘to that complex renovate bilingual such renovate’, was included as, verbs coded kɔra complex renovate which that ‘to bilingual such included was kɔra is verbs as, a coded ‘to renovate bilingual such renovate’, which included as, kɔra verbs complex is renovate ‘to a which bilingual such renovate’, kɔra verbs as, is why
a ‘to renovate complex such which renovate’, as, kɔra verbs is renovate a ‘to which such renovate’, kɔra is as, a ‘to renovate which renovate’, is a ‘to which This
brings
us
torenovate’, one
ofcomplex the
possible
reasons
we
find
more
English
verbs
inkɔra the
X +renovate’, dois a which is a
data. The frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each the frequencies of occurrence of these verbs for the films of each decade to ascertain the overall mbination of an English verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. rb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. an English verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. combination of an English verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. combination of an English verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. combination of an English verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’.
do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. engali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. structures
of
the
films
of
recent
times.
Firstly,
given
that
more
bilingual
verbs
have
the
V
+
‘do’
distribution of complex verbs in the data. The frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each bs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating ussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from ncludes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from scussion kɔra ‘to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from example discussion kɔra ‘to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from The example discussion kɔra ‘to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from The example discussion kɔra ‘to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from The example discussion kɔra ‘to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from
structure,
than
N + ‘do’
structure,
for the films of each decade to the
ascertain the overall there may be something special about verbs that nouns do not
e third type of complex verb that was coded. ented with the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. gali, represented with the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. e form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. Bengali, represented with the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. Bengali, represented with the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. Bengali, represented with the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded.
appear
to contribute
in this specific case. Secondly, because speakers have the option of choosing
e frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each x s e fourth verb of complex was type The of fourth verb complex was The type fourth verb of complex was type The of fourth verb complex was type verb of complex was verb was o record’, record kɔra which record ‘to record’, includes kɔra ‘to record which an record’, English kɔra includes which record ‘to lexical record’, an includes kɔra English ‘to which record record’, an lexical English includes kɔra have
which record ‘to lexical record’, an includes kɔra English ‘to which record record’, an lexical English includes kɔra which ‘to lexical record’, an includes English which an lexical English includes lexical between
two
grammatical
structures
that
subtle
meaning
differences,
a monolingual
and
aan English lexical
ment yzed ould th a verb a as be noun that both (specifically analyzed element could and a noun a be verb as that analyzed element in both and could (specifically the a a context verb noun that as be itboth analyzed (specifically could and element of in a Indian the a noun be verb as context that analyzed both and in (specifically could the a of a verb context noun as Indian be both analyzed (specifically and in of a the a Indian noun verb context as and both in (specifically the of a a verb Indian context noun (specifically in and of the a verb in (specifically the of Indian context in of the Indian context of Indian
bilingual
one,
may
be
the
case
that
they
prefer
structures
that
appear
toIndian becontext more
semantically
direct
d a ali, rom lish) with ‘do’ represented Bengali, with verb the English) a form from ‘do’ represented with N/V(Eng)+‘do’. Bengali, verb with English) the from a form ‘do’ with represented Bengali, with verb N/V(Eng)+‘do’. the In a standard form from ‘do’ represented with N/V(Eng)+‘do’. verb Bengali, with the from In a form with standard ‘do’ represented Bengali, N/V(Eng)+‘do’. verb the In form standard from represented with N/V(Eng)+‘do’. Bengali, the In form standard with represented N/V(Eng)+‘do’. the In form standard with N/V(Eng)+‘do’. the In English
form standard N/V(Eng)+‘do’. In standard In standard
than
others.
As
I English) discussed
regarding
(7),
some
bilingual
combinations
involving
nouns
do
glish, ion eties a distinction between of there English, varieties is a between distinction there of where varieties English, is a the
between distinction of there English, varieties is between distinction there of meaning
English, is a distinction between there is between a distinction between cord, where the récord, stress is récord, on the the where stress first récord, syllable, the is a on stress the where first is récord, on the syllable, the stress where first is récord, the syllable, on stress the where first récord, is on the syllable, the stress where first is récord, the syllable, on stress the where first is Chatterjee
on syllable, the the stress first is syllable, on not
have
same
referential
as
combinations
involving
English
verbs
(see
[40]
for the first syllable,
en it is used as a noun and recórd, where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. is on the second syllable when used as a verb. d recórd, where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. as a noun and recórd, where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. here the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. when it is used as a noun and recórd, where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. when it is used as a noun and recórd, where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. when it is used as a noun and recórd, where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb.
more
discussion on
the distinction between V + ‘do’ and N + ‘do’ structures in Bengali–English speech).
n wever, y varieties a is not distinction usually found such However, of not a in Indian distinction is varieties found usually such However, English, in not of a is varieties distinction Indian usually found where such However, of English, in a not stress Indian distinction is varieties found usually is where such English, in of not is a varieties Indian stress distinction usually found where is English, of not in stress Indian varieties is found usually where is English, in of not varieties stress Indian found where is English, of in stress Indian varieties where is English, of stress Indian where is English, stress is where stress is
This
observation
also
connects
with
what
Annamalai
[5]
had
proposed
about
balanced
bilinguals
ally on a heavy syllable and in some cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the usually on a heavy syllable and in some cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the usually on a heavy syllable and in some cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the usually on a heavy syllable and in some cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the
arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the me cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the eavy syllable and in some cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the and in some cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the using
more English
verbs than nouns in Tamil–English bilingual speech. Because balanced bilinguals
Therefore, aker ors uistic her e.g., sociolinguistic and factors [27]. speaker other a word e.g., Therefore, sociolinguistic and like [27]. factors speaker other record Therefore, a e.g., word sociolinguistic and usually factors [27]. like other speaker a access
Therefore, word always record e.g., sociolinguistic and [27]. like factors usually other record a Therefore, word e.g., always sociolinguistic usually factors [27]. like a record Therefore, word e.g., always [27]. usually like factors record Therefore, a word always e.g., usually like [27]. a may
record word Therefore, always like usually record a word always usually like more
record always usually always
have
more
lexical
to
different
English
constructions,
they
use
those
that
are
whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. on the second syllable, irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. rrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. ies a stress on the second syllable, irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. syllable, irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. carries a stress on the second syllable, irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. carries a stress on the second syllable, irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. carries a stress on the second syllable, irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb.
semantically applicable, while the monolingual Bengali speakers having little knowledge of English use
mplex s forms nd following were analyzed: verbs of coded complex The forms were following N(Beng) and coded of verbs analyzed: The complex + and forms were following kɔra; analyzed: N(Beng) verbs V(Eng) coded of complex The forms were and + following N(Beng) kɔra; coded of analyzed: verbs complex V(Eng) + and forms were kɔra; N(Beng) analyzed: + verbs coded kɔra; V(Eng) of complex were + and + kɔra; N(Beng) kɔra; coded analyzed: verbs V(Eng) and + were kɔra; + N(Beng) analyzed: kɔra; coded V(Eng) and N(Beng) + kɔra; kɔra; analyzed: V(Eng) + kɔra; + N(Beng) kɔra; V(Eng) + + kɔra; kɔra; V(Eng) + kɔra;
the
Bengali
nominal
counterparts
of
English
verbs.
Since
English
use
in + the
1970s
was
not
as
pervasive
N/V(Eng) + kɔra. ra. ng) + kɔra; N/V(Eng) + kɔra. N(Eng) + kɔra; N/V(Eng) + kɔra. andN(Eng) + kɔra; N/V(Eng) + kɔra. extensive as itN(Eng) + kɔra; N/V(Eng) + kɔra. is today, it is possible that speakers were not equally proficient in both Bengali and
ata was analyzed quantitatively by calculating the complex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating ex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating the coding of the complex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating Following the coding of the complex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating Following the coding of the complex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating English Following the coding of the complex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating and therefore Following the coding of the complex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating
resorted to more Bengali verbs. The rise in use of bilingual verbs, especially
ce frequencies verbs of of occurrence these the the verbs of frequencies occurrence of the
for these the the verbs frequencies of of occurrence these for the verbs of frequencies occurrence for these of of occurrence these for the verbs of for these the verbs for each the films of for each decade films of to each ascertain films decade of each the to overall films decade ascertain of the each to verbs the films ascertain decade overall of the to films ascertain overall decade of to each the films ascertain overall decade of to ascertain films decade overall of to each the ascertain decade the to overall ascertain the overall
rise
of
the
V(Eng)
+of ‘do’
structures
ineach recent
years
in
Bengali–English
speech
is overall comparable
to
bs in the data. The frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each ncies of occurrence of complex verbs in each ata. The frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each ribution of complex verbs in the data. The frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each complex verbs in the data. The frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each distribution of complex verbs in the data. The frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each distribution of complex verbs in the data. The frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each distribution of complex verbs in the data. The frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each
what
Backus [8] observed
for Turkish-Dutch bilingual speakers. In his study on three generations
of Turkish-Dutch bilinguals, he observed how the use of V + ‘do’ structures increased as bilinguals
became equally proficient in both languages. Another study by Balam [41] on Spanish–English CS
Languages 2016, 1, 5
14 of 17
Languages 2016, 1, 5 4 of 17 4 of 17
relates to the observations
presented here. In his cross-generational analysis of 1750 Spanish–English
3. Methodology BCVs produced by 56 native bi-/multilinguals from Northern Belize, Balam found a drastic increase
a total of 6 Bengali films from three decades, the 1970s, For the purpose of this paper, I analyze a total of 6 Bengali films from three decades, the 1970s,
in the use of BCVs among
the younger generations who are more proficient in English and Kriol. The
from each decade. I chose to examine films from three the 1990s and post‐2010. I examine two films from each decade. I chose to examine films from three
striking cross-generational change in the use of BCVs was attested not only in the frequency of BCV
nic perspective of use
bilingual different decades in and
order to get a diachronic perspective of bilingual verb use and of possible
use and of possible but alsoverb in the
syntactic
verb
types
pronominal
forms in BCVs.
changes that may have occurred. If societal bilingualism
increases and speakers start
to code-switch often then it is not surprising
ai, popularly known as Bollywood, there Like are the several film industry based Mumbai, popularly Bollywood, that the use of bilingual verbs will not be limited toin specific
contexts
and known topics. as Since
bilingual there are several
ndia, which produce numerous regional every language year and based film industries in India, films every year and
verbs
are most films commonly
observable
in code-switched
speech,
thewhich use ofproduce bilingualnumerous verbs in such
these, is the Bengali film industry based in the city of enjoy a large amount of viewership. Among these, is the Bengali film industry based in the city of
contexts is normal. This is what we observe for Bengali–English bilingual speech in recent years.
The films I analyze for this paper were all produced in Kolkata, sometimes referred to as Tollywood. The films I analyze for this paper were all produced in
Since code-switching
has become an extremely common phenomenon in the speech of urban Indians,
nclude Chadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22], this industry within the past forty years and include Chadmabeshi (1971) [21], Basanta Bilap (1973) [22],
the simultaneous increase in the use of bilingual verbs is also a common feature. The films of
Maach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013) Agantuk (1992) [23], Unishe April (1994) [24], Maach Mishti & More (2013) [25], and Hawa Badal (2013)
post-2010 illustrate
this very fact. As a consequence of this, the sociolinguistic factors that governed
ties in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of the occurrence of [26]. The films were chosen based on similarities in their settings and subjects. Firstly, the stories of
bilingual verbs in the earlier decades (such as age, context, topic, etc.) become less
West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters. relevant in recentthese films are all based in the urban areas of West Bengal and depict narratives of urban characters.
years. Together, the present study, Backus [8] and Balam [41] strongly suggest that
ly belong to the same Secondly, the characters of the films typically belong to the same and
socio‐economic status groups, socio‐economic an increase
in societal
bilingualism
(including
societally-sanctioned
code-switching)
bilingual status groups,
All of the films proficiency
deal with among
issues specifically of inter‐personal the middle/upper‐middle class. All of the infilms deal younger
generations
results in a corresponding
increase
the use
of with BCVs,issues which of inter‐personal
n lovers and touch upon secondary relationships themes such within as the family and between lovers and touch upon secondary may be accompanied by the emergence of innovative patterns and/or forms, such as the use of the themes such as
memories of the past and the search for one’s identity. material and intellectual aspirations in life, memories of the past and the search for one’s identity.
V(Eng) + ‘do’ structures
(for examples of innovations in Spanish/English CS, see Balam [41,42]). Given
The films also all belong to the genre of comedy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they
edy‐dramas and have comparable lengths in that they the discussion so far, one could argue that since all the films examined in this study were based
have a run time of around two hours. in urban areas with
educated middle and upper-middle class characters, the English proficiency of
c investigation of the
code‐switching in Bollywood A study by films Si [13] and
reported a diachronic investigation of code‐switching in Bollywood films
characters has remained
unchanged
that only
code-switching
has increased
in recent years
0s. This study found a massive increase in the overall due to which thefrom three decades, the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. This study found a massive increase in the overall
use of V + ‘do’ structures has increased. This could be a possible reason behind
cifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It use of English in the films of this period, specifically observable in the speech of young speakers. It
the V + ‘do’ structures
always outnumbering the N + ‘do’ structures even in the films of the 1970s.
g patterns in these films became increasingly complex was further reported that the code‐switching patterns in these films became increasingly complex
However, two things need to be pointed out in that regard. First, due to the smaller number of tokens
etween chunks of and verbs
English over years more between of N
Hindi English as compared to
as the compared to films,
ofHindi bilingual
in the
1970s
andinvolving 1990s
thisalternations difference between
V chunks + ‘do’ and
+ ‘do’and structures
Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good insertions of English words in the structure of Hindi sentences. Therefore, the study serves as a good
is probably not statistically significant. Second, given the nature of the data examined in this paper,
ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns illustration of how media data can be used to ascertain broad trends occurring in the speech patterns
it is difficult to tease
apart the extent to which increased bilingual proficiency or increased societal
ilar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use of a community. The present study has a similar purpose, which is to determine changes in the use
CS is responsible for the higher use of V(Eng) + ‘do’ structures in the films post-2010. It is likely that
a similar methodology. of bilingual verbs over time and makes use of a similar methodology. because the movies
were deliberately selected to center around middle/upper-class speakers, it is their
proficiency in English that is responsible for the greater number of V + ‘do’ structures in all decades.
Coding and Data Analysis Further studies could test this issue by following particular English word pairs over the decades to
aper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X + ascertain if nouns tendIn the films that were analyzed for the paper, all the occurrences of complex verbs with the X +
to change to verbs over time, that is if there are more N(Eng)+’do’ structures
ali complex verbs such form were coded. Bengali +complex verbs such as revise
bikri kɔra ‘sale which bikri kɔra such
as as revision
k ‘do’ ra ‘to
do do’, revision’
in the These 1970s, included but more V(Eng)
‘do’ structures
such as
k ra ‘sale do’, which
represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb means to sell. I use the form N(Beng) + ‘do’ to represent these verbs. The other type of complex verb
‘to revise’ in the 2010s.
If this is the case, then the higher number of V(Eng) + ‘do’ structures in recent
verbs such as, renovate kɔra be
‘to due
renovate’, that was which coded is included a in English.
bilingual verbs such be
as, arenovate kɔra ‘to renovate’, which is a
times may
to higher
proficiency
If complex not, it might
simply
case of an
increased
combination of an English verb and a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’.
b from Bengali, represented with the form V(Eng)+‘do’. English lexicon that
is available for incorporation into Bengali–English bilingual speech, or in other
, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from The example discussion kɔra ‘to do discussion’, which includes an English noun and a ‘do’ verb from
words, a case of diachronic
change in the mixed code itself.
do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded. Bengali, represented with the form N(Eng)+’do’ is the third type of complex verb that was coded.
6.which Conclusion
fourth type of complex verb was record kɔra ‘to record’, which includes an English lexical
d kɔra ‘to record’, includes The an English lexical oun and a verb (specifically in the element context that of Indian could analyzed as both a noun verbs
and a through
verb (specifically in the This paper
has
examined
the
usebe of Bengali–English
bilingual
the exploration
ofcontext of Indian
presented with the form N/V(Eng)+‘do’. English) In with standard a ‘do’ verb from Bengali, represented with the form N/V(Eng)+‘do’. In standard
Bengali films from three decades. Two films each from three decades, the 1970s, the 1990s and the 2010s
tween récord, where varieties of English, there is a distinction between the stress is on the first syllable, récord, where the stress is on the first syllable,
were examined for their use of complex verbs in order to gain a diachronic perspective on possible
he stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb. when it is used as a noun and recórd, where the stress is on the second syllable when used as a verb.
changes or developments
in these structures. The results show that the use of bilingual verbs have
found in varieties of Indian English, However, where stress a is distinction is usually varieties of Indian greatly increased in the films such post-2010
in comparison
to thenot filmsfound of thein earlier
decades,
where English, only as where stress is
usually on a heavy syllable and in some cases even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the
es even arbitrarily placed depending on the L1 of the much as 30% of the complex verbs were of the bilingual type. Not only has the share of bilingual verbs
g., [27]. Therefore, increased
a word in
like record speaker usually sociolinguistic factors e.g., Therefore, a word involving
like record usually always
recent
years,
itand is always aother specific
type of bilingual
verb,
the[27]. V(Eng)
+ ‘do’ structure,
ctive of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb. carries a stress on the second syllable, irrespective of whether it is being used as a noun or as a verb.
an English verb with a helping verb ‘do’ from Bengali, which has the highest rate of occurrence of
coded and analyzed: + kɔra; The following V(Eng) + kɔra; forms of complex verbs were coded analyzed: N(Beng) + kɔra; V(Eng) + kɔra;
other N(Beng) types of bilingual
verbs involving
English
nouns.
Previous
studiesand have
linked the
use of more
N(Eng) + kɔra; N/V(Eng) + kɔra. bilingual V + ‘do’ structures to higher bilingual proficiency among speakers, which is partly relevant
bs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating Following the coding of the complex verbs, the data was analyzed quantitatively by calculating
also for Bengali–English
bilingual verbs. Since English use has increased greatly in recent years in
for the films of each decade to ascertain the frequencies of occurrence of these verbs for the films of each decade to ascertain the overall
the overall he frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each distribution of complex verbs in the data. The frequencies of occurrence of complex verbs in each
Languages 2016, 1, 5
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India due to the spread of globalization, economic expansion and technological innovations, speakers
have become more proficient in English and have started code-switching extensively between Bengali
and English. Given this, the use of more bilingual verbs in Bengali–English speech in recent years is
not unexpected. Therefore, while in the films of the earlier decades bilingual verbs were mainly used
for verbs which either did not have Bengali equivalents or used in specific contexts and topics (such
as education or employment), in recent years, bilingual verbs are used in a range of topics and not
necessarily limited to specific contexts. The sociolinguistic factors that governed the occurrence of
bilingual verbs in earlier decades have become less relevant in recent years.
The use of more V + ‘do’ structures in bilingual speech as compared to N + ‘do’ structures may
also be linked to the hypothesis I proposed based on semantic differences. It seems, intuitively, that
bilingual V + ‘do’ structures are more straightforward semantically than bilingual N + ‘do’ structures,
which amount to a more complex way of expressing an action. Therefore, bilingual speakers who
have access to both Bengali and English lexical items may prefer to use structures that are more
direct and ones they are more familiar with. Since urban bilingual speakers are often required to
speak fluent English in order to be competitive in the employment sector, several Bengali words
have fallen into disuse in recent years. The subtle semantic differences between bilingual V + ‘do’
and N + ‘do’ structures, including the easy access that bilingual speakers have to English vocabulary
items may together be responsible for the use of more bilingual verbs and specifically more bilingual
V + ‘do’ structures.
There are several research questions that could be investigated further in terms of bilingual verb
use in Bengali–English speech. For example, the bilingual V + ‘do’ and N + ‘do’ structures could
be analyzed from the perspective of a theoretical framework. Secondly, the hypothesis I presented
in terms of the differential use of V + ‘do’ and N + ‘do’ structures could be investigated empirically
in a more grounded way, the results of which would provide us with insights on many previously
unanswered questions. However, in spite of these outstanding issues, this paper has not only furthered
our understanding of bilingual verb use in the context of Bengali–English speech, it has also illustrated
that media data can be used successfully in understanding the trends in the speech patterns of
a community.
Acknowledgments: I want to thank Marlyse Baptista, Acrisio Pires, Carmel O’Shannessy and Sarah Thomason
for the guidance they offered to me throughout various stages of this research project. Many thanks are also
due to Pieter Muysken, Ad Backus, SoConDi discussion group of the Department of Linguistics, University of
Michigan, and the BLS 38 audience for their valuable comments on earlier versions of this paper. All errors are of
course mine.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.
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