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ATHABASCA UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY UNIVERSITY OF LETHBRIDGE A COMPARISON OF BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY WITH WESTERN CODES OF ETHICS FOR PSYCHOLOGISTS: SUPPORTING A UNIVERSAL DECLARATION BY MICHAEL FEDYNIAK A Final Project submitted to the Campus Alberta Applied Psychology: Counselling Initiative in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF COUNSELLING Alberta (August, 2007) i ii iii Abstract Ethics in psychology entails consideration of central values for virtuous practice. Genuine awareness of shared values and alternate world view perspectives are essential if collaboration on an international level is to be effective. This project examines the merging of minds through including a comparison between a Buddhist philosophical world view with Western philosophy and the CPA code of ethics for psychologists. The comparison may bridge understanding of the two paradigms, which in turn can guide ethical practice. Buddhist values of compassion, benevolence, human suffering, and discipline are worthy constructs for consideration in the arena of ethics. Cognisance of linguistic meaning of these constructs is required. The process of self-reflexive and multicultural competence may enhance the practice of psychology. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to take this opportunity to thank Dr. J. Pettifor and Dr. A. Barber for their support and involvement in this project. Their expertise assisted my learning and was greatly valued. I would also like to acknowledge ongoing encouragement and support from my good friend James McDonald. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page……………………………………………………………………………i Supervisor Signature Page………………………………………………………….ii Second Reader Signature Page……………………………………………………..iii Abstract……………………………………………………………………………..iv Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………v Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………...vi Introduction…………………………………………………………………………1 Purpose and Goals…………………………………………………………..1 Rationale…………………………………………………………………….2 Theoretical Foundations……………………………………………………………..4 Western Philosophy…………………………………………………………4 Teleology……………………………………………………………5 Utilitarianism………………………………………………..5 Virtue ethics…………………………………………………5 Deontology………………………………………………………….6 Social contract theory……………………………………….6 Divine deontology…………………………………………..6 Intuitive deontology…………………………………………7 Existentialism……………………………………………………….7 The Canadian Code of Ethics……………………………………………….8 Ethical Principles……………………………………………………9 Decision-Making Model……………………………………………11 Buddhist Philosophy………………………………………………………..12 Core Principles……………………………………………………...13 Dharma & Karma…………………………………………...13 Four Noble Truths & The Noble Eight-Fold Path ……….....14 Precepts……………………………………………………………...14 Virtues……………………………………………………………….15 Teleology……………………………………………………………16 Utilitarianism………………………………………………..16 vi Virtue ethics.………………………………………………...16 Deontology………………………………………………………….17 Existentialism……………………………………………………….17 Procedures…………………………………………………………………………..19 Methodology for Review of the Literature…………………………………19 Research Collaboration……………………………………………………..20 Research Reflexivity………………………………………………………..20 Comparative Assessment……………………………………………………………23 Western and Buddhist Worldview Assessment……………………………..24 Positivism/ Post-Positivist Paradigm………………………………..24 Interpretive/ Constructivist Paradigm……………………………….25 Emancipatory Paradigm……………………………………………..27 Discussion and Comparison of Key Constructs……………………………..30 Compassion………………………………………………………….30 Foundation of Compassion………………………………………….31 Impediments to Compassion………………………………………...33 Suffering…………………………………………………………….35 Postpositivist paradigm……………………………………...36 Interpretive/ constructivist paradigm………………………..37 Emancipator paradigm………………………………………37 Discipline……………………………………………………………39 Meditation and mindfulness………………………………....39 Integration……………………………………………………………………45 Implications………………………………………………………………………….47 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………...52 References……………………………………………………………………………53 vii A COMPARISON OF BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY WITH WESTERN CODES OF ETHICS FOR PSYCHOLOGISTS: SUPPORTING A UNIVERSAL DECLARATION Introduction Purpose and Goals Current scholastic insight into ethics in psychology presents a calling to re-examine virtue and moral values as its “base for ethical behaviour, thinking, and being” (Pettifor, 1996, p. 1). Implications of this calling are that ethical thoughts, actions, and behaviors of psychologists are interwoven through their every professional interaction. Thus ethical responsibility is incorporated in our personal lives rather than consisting of only rule based ethical prescriptions for the office. The purpose of this study is to re-visit virtue and moral values as a basis for ethical practice through a comparison of Buddhist philosophy with Western codes of ethics for psychologists; for example, the code of ethics outlined by the Canadian Psychological Association (CPA, 2000). The results will be relevant in considering the feasibility of a universal declaration of ethical principles for psychologists. In accordance with the above purpose, this research project is to promote awareness of aspirational standards of practice that are reflective of “the highest ethical ideals in their professional and scientific work” (International Union of Psychological Science Ad Hoc Joint Committee, 2005, p. 2). The Buddhist concept of compassion may be the primary link between Eastern and Western approaches to ethical thinking. Virtue and moral values will be considered through achievement of the following research goals. The first goal is to compare ethical principles (Respect for the Dignity of Persons and Responsibility to Society) in the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists (2000) with Eastern Buddhist philosophical frameworks on ethics. The second goal is to 1 explore the relevance of compassion as a vehicle for aspirational ethics. The third goal is to examine whether common humanity seems to supersede cultural differences when considering a universal declaration of shared values. This third goal may provide insight into consideration of the importance of cultural beliefs and ethics in the global arena (Pettifor, 2006). This research comparison between Western CPA code of ethics and Buddhist philosophy provides a rationale for the scholarly comparative assessment along with relevant theoretical foundational underpinnings. Discussion also considers the methodology and procedures used, followed by comparative analysis and synthesis of findings, and closing comments on the implications of the results. Rationale Within the field of psychology we are seeing “the proliferation of scientific and applied specialisation, regional revitalisation, the expansion of psychology in developing countries, the feminisation of psychology, and the emergence of new paradigms that accentuate contextual realities and challenges (e.g., multiculturalism and indigenization)” (Stevens & Wedding, 2004, p. 481) on an international level. In light of these realities, psychologists will benefit substantially from interconnectedness with other professionals beyond their own national frames of reference. The endeavour of interconnection requires awareness of cultural infusion and understanding (Arthur & Collins, 2006), which then opens the door for global awareness of universal values and morality within the domain of ethics. The current draft of the Universal Declaration of Ethical Principles for Psychologists (International Union of Psychological Science Ad Hoc Joint Committee, 2005) addresses global awareness of universal values as it acknowledges that “the lives and identities of 2 human beings both individually and collectively are connected across generations, and that there is a reciprocal relationship between human beings and their natural and social environments.” (p. 2). Over half of the current world population lives in a region where Buddhist philosophy presently is, or has been, an influential or dominant cultural force (Harvey, 2000). Thus, when considering collaboration and offering services on a global level, in an ethically sound and culturally infused manner, it stands to reason that awareness of what a Buddhist philosophical outlook has to say is very relevant. It is also relevant to consider the philosophical outlook of other major world religions. 3 Theoretical Foundations Theory promotes an understanding of concepts by “establishing relationships between or among constructs that describe or explain a phenomenon by going beyond the local event and trying to connect it with similar events” (Mertens, 1998, p. 2). Theoretical underpinnings, then, are critical for establishing a foundation of understanding when considering the topic of ethics in psychology. Theoretical postulates from Western philosophy and Eastern Buddhist philosophy suggest that “psychology’s formulation and practice of ethics are connected to a larger world which includes foundations in the world’s wisdom traditions in philosophy and religion” (Pettifor, 1996, p. 1). Western Philosophy Western ethics are examined relative to the dominant schools of thought of teleology, deontology, and existentialism. The guiding principles, value statements, and decision making steps outlined in the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists (Canadian Psychological Association, 2000) are described in relation to the aforementioned philosophical schools of thought. Ethics is “the study of good and bad, and of the general nature of morals in different societies” (Pettifor, 2004, p. 265). Discussion on ethics has a longstanding history and the relationship between individuals and society has extended through the age of enlightenment and continues to present day (Pipes, Holstein, & Aguirre, 2005). The dominant schools of teleology, deontology, and existentialism are examined with particular attention to three of the most central theories of ethics influencing the Western world: utilitarianism, virtue ethics, and deontology (Keown, 2005; Pettifor, 1996). It should be noted that there are many variant interpretations within each of these three central theoretical approaches. 4 Teleology Teleology is an ends-oriented theoretical school of thought that encompasses both utilitarian and virtue ethics. Theoretical postulates of each are outlined. Utilitarianism. The main tenet of utilitarianism is that “the greatest pleasure and least pain for the greatest number is the criterion for what is ethically good” (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000, p. 104). Utilitarianism is a philosophical perspective proposed by Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), in which good is judged by the expectation of good consequences (Keown, 2005). Moreover, utilitarian ideology proposes that the ends justify the means with the salient consideration being the greatest good for the greatest number (Pettifor, 1996). An advocate of utilitarian principles would argue the possibility of calculating the greater good through the use of cost-benefit assessment (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). The notion of “rule-utilitarianism” (p. 105) has been considered which advocates that the greatest good should be realized through the process of following prescribed rules. Virtue ethics. Virtue ethics is also end-oriented and rooted in teleology (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). Virtue ethics, developed by Aristotle, advocates for the position that the ultimate good is a life well-lived (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). The essence of virtue ethics is “not simply to follow certain kinds of rules, nor seek pleasant consequences, but first and foremost to be or become a certain kind of [moral] person” (Keown, 2005, p. 23). Virtue, as presented by Aristotle, “is its own reward” (Keown, 2005, p. 25) where a virtuous person can be expected to lead a more rewarding and fulfilling life. It has been indicated that virtue-based ethics seems to be “making a comeback in both science 5 and practice, largely because of dissatisfaction with rule-governed or action-centered ethical systems” (Pettifor, 1996, p. 5). Critics of teleology argue that because it is ends oriented, it fails to consider means or “authentic intent” (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000, p. 106). More specifically, the utilitarian mindset has been criticised for violating respect for individuals who may have been exploited or oppressed for an anticipated or expected greater outcome (Pettifor, 1996). Deontology Deontology underscores the importance of abiding by principles (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). Deontological systems, rooted in the philosophical thought of Kant, place emphasis on duty and obligation and are characterized by retrospective insight for justification. Furthermore, the unconditional regard for each individual takes precedence over the collective group. An advocate of deontology would maintain that “human beings should never be exploited or manipulated merely as a means to an end” (Pettifor, 1996, p. 6), thus “the end never justifies the means” (p. 6). Deontology has several variations: social contract theory, divine deontology, and intuitive deontology (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). Social contract theory. In social contract theory “members of society collectively agree upon certain standards or principles of behaviour (Rousseau, 1762/1979)” (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000, p. 105). Ethical behavior, therefore, entails acting in accordance to standards set forth by the society and the profession of psychology. Divine deontology. Divine deontology emphasize principles, rules, or commandments which are provided by divine authority in the form of religious doctrine or affiliated texts 6 (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). Behaving ethically in accordance to divine deontology, for example, entails following rules set forth by God or a higher divinity. Intuitive deontology. Intuitive deontology is a perspective towards ethics which views right conduct as that which “any rational person would condone using his or her intuitive ability to reason ethically (e.g., Kant’s [1788/1977] categorical imperative or Ross’s [1975] primae facie theory)” (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000, p. 105). The deontological perspective has been criticized for focusing on the means (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000) without consideration for the end results and, consequentially, the collective good of society. Existentialism The existential school of thought maintains the belief that a free process exists for the individual to create his/her own essence, and carve out who one genuinely is (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). Sartre (1957/1998), a 20th century French existentialist, “argued that ‘existence precedes essence’” (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000, p. 106), thus we exist as humans and then, through the process of free will, we become who we believe we should be through free choice. An advocate of existential thought maintains that the responsibility for behavior rests on an individual’s shoulders. Furthermore, according to this perspective “all actions may influence all individuals, all of society, or all of humanity” (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000, p. 106). Existentialism has also been subjected to criticism. Arguments against existential postulates pertaining to ethics have maintained that the theory lacks methodology and offers little guidance supplementing the proposed insight that an individual should be responsible and authentic (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). 7 The theoretical perspectives of utilitarianism, virtue ethics, and deontology contribute to the philosophical mosaic of the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists. A brief overview of the philosophical orientations reflected in the CPA code is considered. The Canadian Code of Ethics A primary purpose of professional codes of ethics is to guide and regulate practice in ways that protect the public from harm. Therefore, professional codes are very practical in addressing issues of current concern within the profession. At the same time, the determination of what is right and wrong behavior is influenced by philosophical and religious values and concepts, and from historical and current events (Pettifor, 1996), all of which have affiliation with the aforementioned theoretical perspectives. Codes of ethics are described as “living documents that continue to evolve and grow in order to guide psychologists in their professional relationships” (Pettifor, Sinclair, & Strong, 2005). Inasmuch as the underlying values of codes of ethics reflect cultural mores and values of the society in which they are rooted (Pettifor, Estay, & Paquet, 2002), codes evolve to accommodate changing values in society. Today “all professional codes of ethics and codes of conduct address in one way or another the issues of respect, rights, confidentiality, informed consent, diversity, well-being of consumers, competency, professional boundaries, conflict of interest, honesty, and, sometimes, responsibility to society” (Pettifor et al., 2002, p. 260). Ethical principles of the CPA code are outlined, followed by affiliated value statements that fall within the context of the utilitarian, deontological, and virtue-based philosophical approaches. The decision making component of the CPA code, and its philosophical orientation, is also discussed. 8 Ethical Principles Jordan and Meara (1990) propose that a focus on relevant ethical principles in relation to ethical dilemmas provides psychologists with required tools to conceptualize the challenging demands of our pluralistic society. They denote principle ethics to be “approaches that emphasize the use of rational, objective, universal, and impartial principles in the ethical analysis of dilemmas” (p. 107). Principle ethics delineated in the CPA code are as follows: (a) Principle 1, Respect for the Dignity of Persons, (b) Principle II, Responsible Caring, (c) Principle III, Integrity in Relationships, and (d) Principle IV, Responsibility to Society (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001). A central structure to the CPA code is having the standard and value statements specifically linked to affiliated principles. It is my observation that the aforementioned principles are grounded in philosophical theory despite the differing viewpoints that exist within philosophical classifications of principles. Principle I, Respect for the Dignity of Persons, has been described as “fundamentally Kantian (i.e., deontological” (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000, p. 110), as it emphasizes rights of the individual which are not compromised as a means for the benefit of the larger group. Value statements under this principle outline general respect, general rights, non-discrimination, fair treatment, informed consent, freedom of consent, protection of vulnerable persons, privacy, and confidentially (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001), all of which honour the concept of individual autonomy. Principle II, Responsible Caring, may be viewed through a teleological lens, as the values under this principle (general caring, competency and self-knowledge, risk/benefit analysis, maximum benefit, offset & correcting harm, care of animals, and extended responsibility) (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001) emphasize consequences or outcomes (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). For example, one measure of the level of 9 professional competency and self-knowledge of a psychologist may be correlated to client outcome; being a self-aware person and a reflective thinker are characteristics affiliated with master therapists when compared to novice therapists (Jennings & Skovholt, 1999). Principle III, Integrity in Relationships, emphasizes the value statements: accuracy of practice, honesty, openness, lack of bias, straightforwardness, avoidance of incomplete disclosure, avoidance of conflicts of interest, reliance on the discipline, and extended responsibility (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001). Thus existentialist philosophical roots are salient with an overarching emphasis of authenticity (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). Principle IV, Responsibility to Society, places an underlying focus on respecting rules and affiliated values of society, and therefore has deontological roots (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). Value statements, such as development of knowledge, beneficial activities, respect for society, development of society, and extended responsibility to society (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001) underscore adherence to respecting societal laws and rules, and advocate for change regarding harmful elements of society. Value statements that provide guidance to change aspects of society that violate ethical principles are aspirational in nature. The principles Respect for the Dignity of Persons, Responsible Caring, Integrity in Relationships, and Responsibility to Society have been designated as aspirational in focus with a holistic virtue-based orientation ensuing (Pettifor, 1996; Pettifor et al., 2005). The CPA code clearly links principles with value statements in an aspirational fashion (Pettifor, 1996), which together contribute to the “highest standards of ethical thinking, behaving, and some would say being” (p. 2). Virtue ethics place a primary focus on an individual’s character as opposed to a particular solution to an ethical dilemma (Fuentes, Yarrow, & Willmuth, 2005). Furthermore, the unique components of virtue ethics are “the identification 10 of the motivation, emotion, character, ideals, and moral habits of a person who functions in the traditions and practices of a culture, group, or community” (p. 364). The principle Respect for the Dignity of Persons, for example, indicates a virtue-based, aspirational focus through identifying that all persons possess moral rights with the addition of a caveat that the manner in which such rights are honored and exercised vary across cultures and communities. Decision-Making Model The decision-making model has roots in utilitarian philosophy by considering the consequences of alternative courses of action resulting from the decision-making steps. Assessing the consequences requires a comparison of the proposed actions to the four aspirational ethical principles. The decision-making model promotes the sharing of ideas and a deeper understanding of human relations. A moral dilemma approach is supported which encourages collaborative relating between concerned parties (Pettifor et al., 2005). The steps are virtue-based as they depend on good character rather than rule based prescriptions for good behaviour. Adherence to the principle of responsibility to society reveals a focused awareness on the collective good of the community. The CPA code, with its balance between respect and caring for others, and care and concern for society, has roots in deontology, teleology, virtue, and existential philosophy. In summary, ethical principles provide a philosophical foundation to support ethical decision making and action, and the development of codes of ethics, and codes of conduct (Jordan & Meara, 1990). It should be noted that codes of conduct in and of themselves represent enforcement of minimal standards of behavior deemed ethically acceptable (Pettifor, 1996). Virtues and values, on the other hand, reflect “the internal composition of 11 character” (Jordan & Meara, 1990, p. 109) and thus the highest aspirational focus when considered in accordance to ethical principles. May (1984), as cited in Jordan & Meara (1990), maintained that virtues are not mere correlates of affiliated principles, rather, they “represent ideals for the professional that go beyond the boundaries of rules or principles” (p. 110). The CPA code, designed to minimize harm and maintain an aspirational agenda, is influenced by the values of the culture in which it was created. Western influence on the values of “…individual responsibility, achievement and decision making may conflict with cultural values of family, community, interdependence, and collective identity” (Pettifor, 2001, p. 29). Thus consideration of additional ethical philosophical influence (Eastern Buddhism) is worthy of elaboration. Over half of the current world population lives in a region where Buddhist philosophy presently is, or has been, an influential or dominant cultural force (Harvey, 2000). Buddhist philosophy In Buddhism “right [or appropriate] view” (Harvey, 2000, p. 11) is considered to be the foundation of moral development. The major traditional schools of thought in Buddhist philosophy are the pre- Mahāyāna and Mahāyāna disciplines (Tachibana, 1992). Comprehensive study of Buddhist ethics has been rather complex due to the breadth and range of subject matter (Heim, 2007). Furthermore, many of the 200 Mahāyāna texts have not been translated and freedom from government restrictions in East Asian regions has occurred only recently (Chappell, 1996). Mahāyāna philosophy is most closely related to the central focus in this project as Mahāyāna places special emphasis on serving others (Keown, 2005). Yet the theoretical underpinnings presented are reflective of Buddhist philosophy as a 12 whole. A brief overview of the moral core of Buddhist thought is provided followed by theoretical and philosophical foundations. The moral core of Buddhism entails principles, precepts, and virtues elucidated by Shakyamuni (Buddha) (Keown, 2005). Core principles of Dharma, including the four noble truths and the eight-fold path, and karma are discussed, along with the five precepts and central virtues. Consideration of the philosophical classification of Buddhist ethics and affiliated worldviews, using Western terminology, are also provided. Theoretical analysis of Buddhist thought will close with consideration of the construct of compassion which is a pivotal value in Mahāyāna philosophy (Chappell, 1996). Core Principles Dharma & Karma. Dharma includes the tenet of a “universal law which governs both the physical and moral order of the universe” (Keown, 2005, p. 3). Dharma entails the principle of order and regularity prevalent in natural phenomena; the idea of a universal moral law with affiliated requirements being revealed by enlightened individuals is an adjunct postulate (Keown, 2005). “Dharma is manifested in the law of karma” (p. 4), which governs the process whereby moral deeds influence individuals in their present and future existence. Simply stated, karma means a particular kind of moral action, that is indicative of good and bad things that happen to an individual –consequential actions (Keown, 2005). Good and bad are essentially seen to be a matter of intention and based on an individual’s choices. It is important to emphasize that karma does not claim that everything that happens to a person is determined solely by karma (Keown, 2005). For example, some events such as winning a game or catching the flu may happen merely as random events. Moreover, 13 individuals are always “free to resist previous conditioning and establishing new patterns of behaviour” (p. 7). Four Noble Truths & The Noble Eight-fold Path. The four noble truths foundational to Buddhism are: (a) all existence is suffering, (b) suffering is caused by craving, (c) suffering can have an end, and (d) the means to the end of suffering is through following the Noble Eight-fold Path (Keown, 2005). The fourth noble truth, the Noble Eight-fold Path, outlines the means in which one can obtain an enlightened state, thus seeing truth as to how things are in reality. The Eight-fold Path is as follows: (a) right view, (b) right resolve, (c) right speech, (d), right action, (e), right livelihood, (f), right effort, (g) right mindfulness, and (h) right meditation (Keown, 2005; Saddhatissa, 1970). Right view and resolve entail an insight oriented division, whereas right speech, action, and livelihood are indicative of the morality division; right effort, mindfulness, and meditation are encompassed in the meditation division. Right path denotes a path of “…practical wisdom [and] is described by the Buddha as producing vision (cakkhukaraņi) and understanding (ñāņakaraņi), conducive to the attainment or higher knowledge (abhiññā), enlightenment (sambodhi), and peace or tranquility (nibbāna)” (Wei-hsun Fu & Wawrytko, 1991, p. 134). In summary, individuals have free will to engage in the aforementioned principles and path where they essentially create themselves through moral choices (Keown, 2005). Moral choices become illuminated through an emphasis on the five precepts. Precepts Ethical requirements outlined in Buddhism are in the form of five precepts or general duties: (a) refraining from harming living creatures, (b) refraining from taking what has not been given, (c) refraining from over indulging in sensuality and from sexual immorality, (d) 14 refraining from speaking falsely, and (e) refraining from taking intoxicants (Keown, 2005; Saddhatissa, 1970). Moral discipline consists of observance of the moral precepts (moral guidelines laid down by the Buddha) and cultivation of virtuous acts, which entails the accumulation of the good qualities necessary to attain nirvana, which is the transcending of unpleasant realms (Harvey, 2000). Virtues The breadth of virtues in Buddhism can be derived from three fundamental virtues: non-attachment, benevolence, and understanding (Keown, 2005). These are the polar opposites to the evil roots of greed, hatred, and delusion. Non-attachment consists of the absence of selfishness and egoistic desire and designating privileged status to one’s own needs. Benevolence entails an emphasis of goodwill to all others. Understanding, in accordance to Buddhist thought, requires knowledge of the Four Noble Truths. In addition to the three foundational virtues is the central virtue of compassion, which the Dalai Lama maintains is the most important moral quality (McCarthy, 2001). Although compassion is important in all Buddhist schools, substantial emphasis has been placed on this virtue in the Mahāyāna discipline (Keown, 2005), where a bodhisattva, “one who has entered on the path of enlightenment and, motivated by compassion, has vowed to help other sentient beings realize enlightenment prior to becoming a [B]uddha” (Wei-hsun Fu & Wawrytko, 1991, p. 409). Moreover, through compassion a bodhisattva commits to relinquishing suffering in all. A more in-depth discussion on compassion is included following philosophical classifications of Buddhist ethics. 15 To date there is no agreed upon methodology for Eastern and Western philosophical comparisons in relation to ethics, yet attempts have been made to gain theoretical understanding (Keown, 1996, 2005; Prebish, 2001). Discussion of Buddhism being related to teleological, deontological, or existentialist philosophies is provided. Teleology Within the realm of teleological classification, utilitarian and virtue-based assessment is warranted. Examination of how Buddhist ethical postulates fit in accordance to each is provided. Utilitarianism. Buddhist ethics maintains close resemblance to utilitarianism since, in accordance with ends focused assessment, the doctrine of karma in Buddhism “teaches that there is a close relationship between good deeds and future happiness” (Keown, 2005, p. 26). Thus, consideration of good consequences is emphasized, and Buddhism has often been associated with Western consequentialism on the following grounds: (1) Buddhism defines the good hedonically in terms of worldly well-being; (2) the Buddhist agent acts in such a way as to ensure her or his own well-being in future lives (action is motivated by the desire for personal happiness); and (3) the Buddhist criterion of right action is conduciveness to increased happiness (Keown, 1996, p. 330). Virtue ethics. Buddhist ethics appears to have substantial resemblance to virtue-based ethics (Keown, 1996, 2005; McCarthy, 2001; Veleq de Cea, 2004). Essentially, “Buddhism is first and foremost a path of self-transformation that seeks the elimination of negative states (vices) and their replacement by positive or wholesome ones (virtues)” (Keown, 2005, p. 25). Thus a salient emphasis is placed on being a moral person. Veleq de Cea, (2004) postulates a 16 system of Buddhist ethics consisting of instrumental actions (leading to conditions favorable for nirvanic virtues) in accordance with teleological actions (where actual nirvanic virtues are displayed) thus the goal of cessation of suffering is maintained. Also in accordance to virtuebased ethics is altruistic conduct which consists of directing moral action for the benefit of others (Harvey, 2000). Deontology Deontology places a substantial emphasis on rule following (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). Buddhism has elements which are deontological in nature through placing emphasis on “rules and precepts that approach the status of moral absolutes” (Keown, 2005, p. 26). Precepts are voluntarily assumed. However, the deontological obligation to live a moral life is emphasized for all in Buddhism. Existentialism Buddhism appears to have existential attributes within its philosophical repertoire. Buddhism underscores the nature of free will (Keown, 2005) which is indicative of existentialist thought. Furthermore, according to existentialism “all actions may influence all individuals, all of society, or all of humanity” (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000, p. 106). In relation to this central tenet there seems to be points of convergence and divergence. Mahāyāna appears to relate to the phenomenological criteria of interconnectedness. Through the boddisattva ideal there seems to be convergence with existential thought since emphasis is placed on saving all beings (Chappell, 2001) and not seeking enlightened existence for themselves alone (Wei-hsun Fu & Wawrytko, 1991). Moreover, it is postulated that all phenomena share the attribute of emptiness (Wei-hsun Fu & Wawrytko, 1991, p. 362) revealing the union of everything. On ontological grounds, the nondualistic nature of 17 Mahāyāna postulates that mind is actually one with the entire universe (Wei-hsun Fu & Wawrytko, 1991); a belief which is described to be “possible if the core of my own egoconsciousness is not self-existing but hollow, because groundless: If consciousness is not ‘inside,’ there is no outside” (p. 304). Epstein (1999) outlines that Buddhism teaches that “we are not so much isolated individuals as we are overlapping environments” (p. 135). A point of divergence, however, should also be considered, as in Buddhism there is still the teleological dimension where focus is placed on personal actualization and self-realization (Keown, 1996). Thus Buddhism contains elements indicative of egotism and altruism (Keown, 2005). The philosophical schools of thought of teleology, deontology, and existentialism have been discussed in relation to ethical theory prevalent in Western and Buddhist ethics. In addition, philosophical and theoretical assessment of the CPA code was presented, all of which provides a common ground for comparison between Western and Buddhist modes of ethical meaning making which, after further analysis, may result in insight that can be extended from the meta-theoretical level to the domain of practical application. Prior to the comparative analysis a discussion of procedures is presented. 18 Procedures A research strategy requires identification of preliminary sources, identification of primary search journals, and accessing personal networks (Mertens, 1998). Furthermore, ethical research entails consideration of research paradigms, researcher bias, and potential stakeholders, in conjunction with a full account of methodology. Methodology is discussed which describes the literature review process. To follow will be an account of researcher reflexivity, which, in accordance to emancipatory research frameworks, addresses personal bias and world view. Attempts to contribute to primary research in any topic of interest usually involves the initial undertaking of conducting a literature review (Mertens, 1998). The objective of a review of the literature is to explain what is understood about a topic and to support the rationale of the research (Mertens, 1998). This project includes a review of the central theoretical and philosophical foundational themes of Buddhism, Mahāyāna school in particular, along with Western philosophy and the CPA code of ethics for psychologists. The theoretical review entails consideration of different world views and provides a foundation for the comparison and thus the foundation for merging of paradigms. Methodology for Review of the Literature Preliminary sources that were targeted consisted of various databases accessed through the University of Calgary library and the University of Alberta NEOS consortium catalogue. Electronic databases accessed were PsychINFO, Psychological and Behavioral Sciences, Academic Search Premier, and JSTOR Journals. Google Scholar was accessed for review of the Journal of Buddhist Ethics for relevant articles to the topic of interest. Key words and phrases searched for were: Buddhist ethics, Western ethics, code of ethics, ethics 19 in psychology, Mahāyāna Buddhism, compassion, and Canadian code of ethics. The “Ancestry approach” (Mertens, 1998, p. 41) was incorporated throughout the literature search process. The ancestry approach entails examination of reference lists found at the end of applicable books or journal articles. Diverse articles were chosen including primary research, literature reviews, and research from the three dominant research paradigms: positivism/ postpositivism, interpretive/ constructivism, and emancipatory world views. Journals included range from an empirical/ science orientation to a philosophical/ religion orientation with the intent of a balance with world view inclusion. Articles were excluded from this project if the emphasis was solely on medical ethics and unrelated to the practice of psychology or psychotherapy. The only exception to this was the inclusion of a journal on nursing research (Advances in Nursing Science), which was highly relevant during discussion on ethics in a multicultural context. An attempt was made to consider Buddhist literature relating to the Mahāyāna discipline exclusively. However, many constructs presented are relevant to Buddhism as a whole. Thus sources were included which provide a synopsis of literature from various schools of thought in Buddhist studies which bore relevance. Research Collaboration Peer networking was conducted and consisted of direct collaboration with the project supervisor, a specialist in ethics in psychology, and email correspondence with an academic professor specialising in Buddhist philosophy from the University of Calgary. Peer networking assisted in ensuring a balance of perspectives were represented and maintained. Research Reflexivity Informal self-assessment of researcher bias, worldview, and personal and professional investments into the project require consideration. Research self-assessment is 20 essential as “[a] researcher’s theoretical orientation has implications for every decision made in the research process, including the choice of method” (Mertens, 1998, p. 3). Throughout graduate training I noticed a shift in thinking as academic exposure changed from the science of psychology during initial undergraduate training towards philosophical considerations in psychology in my graduate years. This shift provided impetus to re-examine my own values, sense of culture, and world view. A strong awareness of suffering in the world, causes of suffering within my own sphere of experience, and Eurocentric upbringing, have resulted in a strong desire to learn more about integration and unified interconnectedness with others. Interest in universal values stems out of profound awareness of the desire and inclination towards the state of happiness in everyone. A change in thinking was not exclusive to the domain of academic pursuits and also entailed openness in the spiritual domain. My interest and understanding about the human experience has gravitated towards a Buddhist perspective from early childhood exposure to Western Catholicism. Martial arts has played a valuable role in my life and resulted in experience with a discipline which emphasizes connection between mind, body, and spirit. Interest in Buddhism resulted in a retreat to a Monastery during undergraduate years and provided exposure to meditation first hand. Meditation has been an ongoing personal practice ever since. Professional endeavours can not be considered exclusive from world view orientation. I gravitate towards an emancipatory world view in my professional life and actively take on an advocacy role for clients. I find it challenging to observe power hierarchies and, often affiliated, an overarching normative dominance that ensues. Moreover, I have found that economic gain, maintenance of power, and an overemphasis on 21 individualistic orientation has resulted in an atmosphere not supportive of practitioners and clients. Client care and an other orientation is the essence of the human care industry. I am fortunate to be affiliated with a university offering graduate education where self-reflexivity is not only accepted but encouraged throughout the learning process. In light of the proposed research methodology a procedural foundation exists for the central comparison for this project. Comparative analysis is now provided. 22 Comparative Assessment Comparison between Western and Buddhist philosophy as it relates to ethics will be oriented in a top-down manner, whereby worldview influences that guide ontological and epistemological processes of inquiry are considered first. A detailed consideration of precipitating, salient constructs essential to both Western and Buddhist ethical systems will follow. Results of the comparative assessment will address the three research goals: 1) To compare ethical principles (Respect for the Dignity of Persons and Responsibility to Society) in the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists (2000) with Eastern Buddhist philosophical frameworks on ethics, 2) to explore the relevance of compassion as a vehicle for aspirational ethics, and 3) to examine whether common humanity seems to supersede cultural differences when considering universal declaration of shared values. A worldview “is essentially a set of assumptions about how human beings and the world in which we live function” (Arthur & Collins, 2006, p. 65). An accumulation of objective and subjective interpretations generated from experiential, perceptual awareness of the world are derived in a worldview which then offers guidance for further interpretation and categorization of experience. Worldviews are not exclusive to assumptions and biases and are often “…presumed as truths and are rarely the focus of personal or collective evaluation” (p. 65). The positivism/ post-positivism, interpretive/ constructivist, and emancipatory worldviews are discussed from the Western and Buddhist perspectives in relation to ethics, followed by discussion of key constructs which are used for further comparison. Philosophical paradigms or worldviews present ways of viewing the world that facilitate thinking and action (Mertens, 1998). The positivist/postpositivist, 23 interpretive/constructivist, and emancipatory paradigms are explored in relation to Buddhist philosophy and the CPA code. Western and Buddhist Worldview Assessment Positivism/ Post-positivist Paradigm Philosophical assumptions underlying the positivism/ post-positivism paradigm are that “the social world can be studied in the same way as the natural world, that there is a method for studying the social world that is value-free, and that explanations of a causal nature can be provided (Mertens, 1998, p. 7). Ontological formulations of the world and human nature according to post-positivism are in accordance to one prevalent reality (Mertens, 1998). In Western academia empiricism and scientific inquiry represents a dominant influential epistemological force. Kendler (1993) postulates that “psychology and ethics are socially created concepts incapable of being equated to a limited set of circumscribed observational events” (p. 1046). Kendler (1999) also proposes that “…empirical evidence can validate factual truth but not moral truth” (p. 829), thus indicating that empirical findings are unreliable for deriving and guiding human values. Blickle (2004) maintains the perspective that there is a value base in psychology “…including concepts such as rationality, empirical support for assertions, impartiality, openness to revisions, and the acknowledgement of limits to one’s own competence” (p. 274). An empirical, post-positive vantage-point with roots in traditional Western-European views has contributed substantially to the practice of psychology (Arthur & Collins, 2006). Catano (1994) proposes that “…the [Canadian] Code of Ethics must become part of the shared background of scientific activity” 24 (Forging a Single System, ¶ 1). Prior to examination of alternate worldviews consideration of the post-positivist mindset in Buddhist philosophy requires consideration. In review, post-positivism places emphasis on empirical methods of inquiry into phenomena in addition to the belief in one objective reality (Mertens, 1998). The closest Buddhism appears to come to this paradigm is the attention placed on moral teachings which “constitute the subject matter or raw data of ethics” (Keown, 2005, p. 27). Inquiry under this paradigm is further complicated due to the fact that “[c]ontemporary Buddhist groups rarely publish position papers and the great thinkers of the past left no legacy in the form of treatises on ethics” (p. 27). The verbal instruction and passing on of teachings and experiences appears to be more salient contributors of ethical evaluation than reliance on empirical external data in Buddhist thought. Interpretive/ Constructivist Paradigm The central tenet of the interpretive/ constructivist worldview is that “reality is socially constructed” (Mertens, 1998, p. 11) and values are not mutually exclusive to research and derived knowledge. A further assumption to constructivist thought is that humans construct knowledge as opposed to finding and discovering it (Mertens, 1998). Therapeutic practice of psychology has been described as a linguistic process where therapeutic problems are not solely defined as problems in an objective reality, but may be defined as problems via members of the involved system (Fong & Lease, 1994). The creative power of dialogue in contributing to the CPA code of ethics has been outlined by Pettifor et al. (2005), where open consultation, reflection, and collaboration of ideas have been pivotal processes. The proposed purposes of the CPA code of ethics, to establish the identity and credibility of the profession of psychology, to act as a support and guide to individual 25 professionals, and to help meet the responsibilities of being a profession (Pettifor, et al., 2005), may be described as having roots in constructivist insight, where collaboration, selfreflection, and dialogue are central reflexive processes in constructing moral agents in the profession. In line with the constructivist belief in multiple realities is the potential for differential interpretation of guiding ethical principles. It has been presented that psychologists need more than a code of ethics for guidance despite its relevance (Pettifor, 2001; Rave & Larsen, 1995). Buddhism appears to be interpretive/ constructivist in nature as there is the belief that there is a nonsubstantive essence of reality, otherwise known as absolute nothingness, which goes beyond the factual level (Wei-hsun Fu & Wawrytko, 1991). In constructivist thought knowledge is considered to be a construct, or construction, created by the mind (Fox, 2001). In line with constructivism and in accordance with Buddhist viewpoints, meditation has been theoretically and philosophically conceptualized to complement constructions of our reality (Delmonte, 1987). Byrom (1976), as cited in Corsini & Wedding (2000), maintained that teaching by the Buddha began with outlining: We are what we think All that we are arises with our thoughts With our thoughts we make the world… It is good to control them, And to master them brings happiness. (p. 413) Hallisey & Hansen (1996) propose that moral life is enabled by narrative and that Theravādin commentators have recognized substantial nature of Buddhist narratives with affiliated work-like elements. “[T]hrough narrative we are able to imagine ourselves in the 26 place of another” (p. 314). Thus through passage of story in conjunction with affiliated principles (more structured elements) of Dharma teachings, Buddhism reveals methodology for constructing a moral being in accordance to the interpretive/ constructivist paradigm. Interpretation of ethical codes, defining ethical principles, and ethical decision making may be related to one’s position in culture, in particular, one’s position in relation to power (Rave & Larsen, 1995). Differential power and social construction has been considered by the emancipatory paradigm. Emancipatory Paradigm The emancipatory paradigm “directly address[es] the politics in [psychological] research by confronting social oppression at whatever levels it occurs” (Mertens, 1998, p. 15). There has been disagreement on whether Western psychologists have a responsibility towards the promotion of social justice and contributing to societal change (Pettifor, 2004). Stevens & Wedding (2004) indicate that international psychology maintains a commitment to social justice based on its definition. Toporek, Gerstein, Foaad, Roysircar, & Israel (2006) propose that social justice is a central identifying feature of counselling psychology. Feminist theory has largely contributed to emancipatory thought (Mertens, 1998). The Feminist Therapy Code of Ethics (1999) maintains that “the personal is political” (¶ 2). Moreover, the code outlines the following central tenets: A belief in the equal worth of all human beings, a recognition that each individual’s personal experiences and situations are reflective of and an influence on society’s institionalized attitudes and values, and a commitment to political and social change that equalizes power among people. (¶ 2) 27 Feminist ethics entail consideration that personal identity and values are inextricably connected with professional values and ethics (Pipes et al., 2005). In accordance with emancipatory ontology multiple realities are influenced by social, political, cultural, economic, ethnic, gender, and disability values (Mertens, 1998). The CPA code of ethics outlines that “…social structures and policies that have beneficial purposes are defined as those that more readily support and reflect respect for the dignity of persons, responsible caring, integrity in relationships, and responsibility to society” (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001, p. 87). An emancipatory focus is indicated in the CPA code of ethics through acknowledging the larger social system when considering ethical care and concern towards individuals and society at large. The emancipatory paradigm governing modes of phenomenological inquiry maintains the ontological stance that multiple realities are shaped by cultural and social processes, and advocates for a social action agenda in accordance with culturally infused ethical awareness (Arthur & Collins, 2006; Mertens, 1998). Evolving from traditional Buddhist ethics is the emergence of a movement known as engaged Buddhism (Keown, 2005; Queen, 2000). Engaged Buddhism, founded by Thich Nhat Hanh, “focuses on larger questions of public policy such as social justice, poverty, politics, and the environment” (Keown, 2005, p. 32). Engaged Buddhism emphasizes awareness in daily life, social service, and social activism as central ideas for consideration, and is a philosophical construct which applies to human rights issues. Queen (2000), a modern philosopher on engaged Buddhism proposed four styles of Buddhist ethics: (a) The ethics of discipline, (b) the ethics of virtue, (c) the ethics of altruism, and (d) the ethics of engagement. The ethics of discipline reveal that conduct caused by 28 mental impurities (greed, hatred, and delusion) may be combatted by observing the precepts or moral guidelines (Keown, 2005). The ethics of virtue entail relationship coming to the forefront and constructs, such as compassion, kindness, sympathetic joy, and equanimity, being salient themes. The ethics of altruism entail service to others as the predominant consideration. Ethics of engagement entail consideration of the aforementioned three ethical prescriptions directed towards concern for a better society. Thus it is clear that the engaged Buddhism movement has an active role in social advocacy with an affiliated role in guiding ethical commentary on the moral social process. Assessment of paradigms reveals that in Western psychology and ethics philosophy a balance seems to exist across all three paradigms, positivism/ postpositivism, interpretive constructivism, and emancipatory, in relation to ethics, as each paradigm holds value in traditional and present zeitgeists. This is apparent when considering the prevalent value of quantitative methods of inquiry represented in the medical model at one end of the spectrum, with value towards social justice and equality displayed at the other end representing the sociopolitical model. Catano (1994) advocates for a balanced approach when considering facts and theory, and norms, values, and principles maintaining that “The Code of Ethics should be seen as the mechanism which serves to bridge the realms of scientific and practical discourse in psychology” (Moral Phenomena, ¶ 1) when deriving new knowledge. In framing Buddhist views in the Western paradigms presented there appears to be a stronger correlation between Buddhist ethical philosophy with interpretive/ constructivist and emancipatory worldviews, yet influence from all three paradigms exist. The practice of meditation to cultivate right thought, action, speech, livelihood, view, resolve, effort, and mindfulness entails focus on mental events; a process which can be considered both objective and 29 subjective in nature. Moreover, narrative practice and social activism are emphasized in ethical teaching and practice. The review has entailed examination of Buddhist ethics philosophy and the CPA code of ethics across the spectrum of Western philosophical and worldview classification. A review of the literature on Buddhist ethics reveals constructs worthy of further elaboration which may be comparable with elements of the CPA code of ethics. Key constructs are now considered. Discussion and Comparison of Key Constructs Central to Buddhist philosophy and practice are the constructs of compassion and discipline of mind, both of which are central to and essential for the cessation of suffering in self and others. The constructs of compassion, discipline of mind, and suffering are pivotal to the Buddhist ethical practice of virtuous being and appear to have Western correlates as implicit or explicit themes in the CPA code of ethics. Compassion In Buddhism compassion is indicative of “active sympathy, [and] gentle affection” (Eynde, 2004, ¶ 3). Glaser (2005) postulates that compassion “is the basis of connection, intimacy, openness, kindness, hospitality, and joy. It is an expression of human freedom, flowing from a sound intuition of the unity of life and all living things” (p. 11). In Mahāyāna Buddhism the bodhisattva reflects the quintessence of compassion where attentiveness to the needs of others is strongly emphasized (Keown, 2005). Glaser (2005) maintains that “the seeds of compassion are found in empathy, or the ability to enter into and know, at least in part, the suffering of another” (p. 42). The foundations of compassion and impediments to compassion are discussed. 30 Foundation of Compassion An important precursor to compassion in Buddhist philosophy is awareness of the concept of interdependent arising which postulates that “all psychological and physical phenomena constituting individual existence are interdependent and mutually condition each other or that they stand in a relationship that can be in terms of simultaneity as well as succession in time” (Eynde, 2004, ¶ 3). The tenet of interdependent arising calls into question the central focus of self in Western psychology since, in Buddhism, all existence is believed to be interdependent with conditioned creation of experiences that go against an exclusive permanent self structure. Glaser (2005) postulates that “compassion frees us from the pain of our misguided egocentric strivings” (p. 69). The implication of interdependent arising is that all others need to fall within the realm of our care and concern. Mahāyāna, also referred to as Great Vehicle, placing a strong emphasis on others maintains that “we can never be completely free as long as others to whom we are inextricably linked suffer” (Glaser, 2005, p. 15). Hershock (2000) maintains the following regarding a Buddhist view of an interdependent world: It is a world for which we are intimately responsible, which already expresses or evidences our patterns of valuation, and to which we may always and creatively contribute. In such a world, it is not possible in any nontrivial sense to see ourselves as autonomously existing individuals. We are, and have always been, given-together. And thus, our most basic right is not ‘to be let alone’ but rather to see the exact nature of our always shared responsibility and to realize the greatest virtuosity possible in responding to our situation as needed. (p. 11) 31 Thus reflection on the construct of interdependent arising awakens a mindset that shifts away from a mutually exclusive existence where neglect or habituation to the conditions of others can occur and adopts a view of reality of interconnected being. Genuine compassion entails engaging in wise action for the benefit of others, which is exclusive to the promotion of selfinterest. Thus the concept of no-self is central to the Buddhist mindset of altruistic compassion which, when achieved or realized, contributes to the framework for ethical action. The construct of compassion has not been a principle focus in psychological work in the West (Glaser, 2005; Ladner, 2004), which may be due to the fact that it falls outside the realm of the empirical mode of inquiry. Western emphasis on research methodology has stood the test of time and, consequentially, presents one of the more dominant modes of understanding, which may result in this epistemological force holding the most credible truth. It is important to note that “the belief in scientific empiricism and empirically supported interventions has the potential to exclude the use of culturally appropriate humanistic and spiritual healing experiences” (Pettifor, 2001, p. 30). Ladner (2004) postulates that “it is not the behavior but the state of mind motivating the behavior that determines the presence or absence of compassion” (p. 13). Thus compassion is the precursor to ethical behavior, which is outside the realm of quantification or measurability, and appears to be more reflective of authentic matters of the heart. The need for protection from harm underscores the necessity for and focus on individual human rights, which in essence, entails matters of the heart through care and concern for the well being of others. The CPA code of ethics is attentive to individual autonomy through Respect for the Dignity of Persons and affiliated values of non32 discrimination, fair treatment and due process, freedom of consent, protection for vulnerable persons, privacy, and confidentiality (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001). Honouring individual autonomy and equality of human rights is of pivotal importance to ethical practice and underscores the care and concern which bares resemblance to the construct of compassion. The CPA code includes the cultivation of community through adherence and attentiveness to the needs of society. The principle Responsibility to Society emphasizes importance of working in partnership with others being open to external influence, in addition to selfreflexivity, to promote the welfare of all (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001). Thus an explicit element of interdependence is observed. On epistemological grounds there appears to be a salient point of convergence between the Buddhist view of compassion and the CPA code’s adherence to responsible caring and respect towards society. Assessment of compassion in Buddhism and the CPA code of ethics reveals the common theme of the virtue benevolence. Benevolence, as defined in The Oxford Dictionary, Pollard (1994), means “wishing to do good to others” (p. 72). Keown (2005) describes benevolence to mean “an attitude of goodwill to all living creatures” (p. 13). Nussbaum, as cited in Eynde (2004), maintains that compassion and benevolent action are connected. The overarching intention to assist others is a salient component of compassion and is valued considerably by both Eastern and Western philosophy, and throughout the practice of ethics. A discussion on compassion would be incomplete without mention of impediments to this construct. Impediments according to Eastern and Western thought are considered. Impediments to Compassion 33 In Buddhism, impediments to compassion are the emotional states of desire, hatred, aggression, and ignorance which all promote the experience of suffering (Eynde, 2004). Diminishing the impediment states is of the utmost importance which becomes apparent when reflecting on our interdependent or conditioned arising since “…our mutual dependency indicates that whatever can be done to reduce suffering in the world should be done” (Compassion and Politics, ¶ 6). Moreover, Emotional intelligence, coupled with wisdom and sound reasoning, are essential for compassion (Glaser, 2005; Ladner, 2004). Thus in Buddhist thought, “the heart is not an adjunct to thinking. It is ‘a direct presence that allows a complete attunement with reality’” (Glaser, 2005, p. 17). Neglecting emotional reasoning with cognitive analysis in ethical problem solving hinders the cultivation of compassionate responding. In Western philosophy individuation and an emphasis on autonomous thinking rooted in postpositivism provides a clear objective distinction between self and other. A Western perspective when considering human rights has “…focused on establishing the minimum conditions of our secure and dignified coexistence while preserving a clear demarcation between the public and private spheres” (Hershock, 2000, p. 9). An individualistic mindset, coupled with a strong value towards objectivism, runs the risk of segregating emotional experience from reason based assessment. Moreover, segregating cognitive analysis and affective domains when assessing practical case studies may result in “…becoming primarily abstract thought puzzles to be analyzed according to specified rules” (Jordan & Meara, 1990, p. 108), which may minimize capacity for compassion as caregivers. Goal driven self-achievement and professional recognition have affiliated status and power: a frame of reference which is mainly ego based and self-serving and a possible 34 detriment to pure focus on the wellbeing of others. It should be noted that power and privilege have a segregating element in any culture, society, or political system and are equally a concern in Eastern and Western societies. Arthur and Collins (2006) outlined that power does not always have a detrimental influence; “it is the differential distribution of power across various groups in society that leads to systemic forms of oppression and a sense of disempowerment among members of non-dominant populations (p. 83). Suffering The construct of suffering in Buddhism is one of the four noble truths; existence is suffering (Keown, 2005; Walsh-Frank, 1996). The source of suffering is clinging and craving, which is the second noble truth in Buddhism (Keown, 2005). Clinging to illusionary views of self and thought patterns, as well as material things to derive happiness, produces the state of suffering according in Buddhist thinking. Furthermore, craving emotional states and/or material possessions for ownership are methods to substantiate a sense of permanent self which is believed to be the root of happiness. This view of the world in Buddhism is indicative of the absence of wisdom. Glaser (2005) maintains that in Buddhism a lack of wisdom or ignorance has the following repercussions: Ignorance creates the identification with me and mine. It, in turn, depends upon an illusion of separateness and a belief in inherent self-existence. However, because ignorance depends upon illusion, it is by nature weaker than the true reality that we and all phenomena do not exist absolutely and independently, but as subtly interconnected processes. (p. 45) In Mahāyāna Buddhism suffering is of pivotal importance as it is a universal state and “…those who understand its source are virtually mandated to help others” (Walsh-Frank, 35 1996, Conclusion, ¶ 3), hence the importance and honour affiliated with bodhisattva. “A bodhisattva is one who acts with courage and bravery to accomplish full awakening for the benefit of all beings” (Glaser, 2005, p. 19). In line with bodhisattva thinking, it is believed that through “perceiving the interminable pain and sorrow of other living beings who are, like us, caught in a web of suffering, we become filled with a burning impulse to free them” (p. 19). According to Buddhism, inducing a compassionate focus that is other-centered to minimize suffering is indicative of the height of ethical being. Western psychology is vast and diverse and an assessment of theoretical assessment of suffering from the multitude of schools of thought would be beyond the scope of this paper. To understand suffering from the perspective of Western philosophy in a comprehensive manner worldview classification is required. Suffering can be considered from the perspectives of postpositivist, interpretive / constructivist, and emancipatory worldviews. Such classification is required since suffering does not appear to exist as an exclusive stand-alone construct in the practice of clinical psychology (Miller, 2005). Postpositivist paradigm. Postpositivism is affiliated with the medical model when considering the overarching emphasis on science and empiricism. From this viewpoint individuals are thought to be “victims of disease” (Brickman et al., 1982, p. 372). Miller (2005) postulates that the medicalization (p. 305) of emotional pain and suffering are “…redefined as disorders of the individual produced by the brain, psyche, or environment, [whereby] the meaning of human suffering is fundamentally altered” (p. 305). Suffering, as a human emotion, is accounted for in terms of empirical categorization of cognitive, biological, or sociological explanations (Miller, 2005), when considering the medical modal and objectivism as presented in the postpositivist paradigm. 36 Interpretive/ constructivist paradigm. In constructivism multiple realities are postulated to exist (Mertens, 1998). In constructivist psychology a de-pathologizing perspective is emphasized to allow for creation of new meanings which encourage growth and change (Griffin & Vinson, 1999). A non-pathologizing view sees client problems as developmental challenges that occur simultaneously with moments of emotional disequilibrium (Griffin & Vinson, 1999). From this perspective suffering may be viewed as a construction which no longer serves the individual and, therefore, requires reframing to minimize or reduce the emotional discomfort. In honouring multiple realities, the constructivist frame of reference values the subjective portrayal of the suffering experience which would be considered as unique to the individual and the psychologist would attempt to gain insight into the nature of the individuals’ view of reality. Emancipatory paradigm. This worldview addresses the impact of the larger social system when considering suffering (Arthur & Collins, 2006). In accordance with this worldview suffering may not be central to the individual, but the result of systemic barriers that impose restrictions on individuals. The emancipatory worldview has often been affiliated with the feminist ethics (Arthur & Collins, 2006). “Feminist ethical principles support experiential learning and transformative learning” (Pettifor et al., 2002, p. 261), thus the subjective internal journey of the individual is honoured. Suffering from this mindset would likely entail learning the subjective experiences of the individual in accordance with social dynamics and ethical responsibility. A Western philosophical view of suffering, resulting from the aforementioned paradigms, appears to cover a full spectrum from an objective, diagnostic, and largely 37 cognitive appraisal, to one where a multitude of subjective accounts are considered from the vantage point of the individual and from a collective society. The CPA code of ethics consists of a prescriptive and aspirational stance towards ensuring minimization of harm and suffering through emphasis placed on respect and responsibility. In this context care for individuals, society, and the profession of psychology are advocated. The principle of responsibility to society reflects a balanced and inclusive approach to psychological intervention and practice where minimizing suffering is honoured from the various worldviews. The CPA code of ethics (Sincair & Pettifor, 2001) postulates that: Freedom of enquiry and debate (including scientific and academic freedom) is a foundation of psychological education, science, and practice. In the context of society, the above expectations imply that psychologists will exercise this freedom through the use of activities and methods that are consistent with ethical requirements. (p. 87) The cultivation of compassion and minimizing of suffering in self and others requires competent skill development and virtuous being in both Buddhism and the CPA code of ethics. The ability to maintain an other focus, act with benevolence, and genuinely identify with the suffering of others induces a call to helping professionals which is explicitly identified in Buddhist teachings and in the CPA code of ethics. Although suffering has different epistemological roots in Buddhism when compared to Western philosophy and the CPA code of ethics, the common theme of virtuous intent to reduce suffering in others, and in the world, is apparent in both. Compassion, and its salient other orientation, is a construct worthy of cultivation in both Buddhism and Western practice of psychology. Compassion is 38 a plausible construct worthy of consideration in the global arena of psychological practice. The cultivation of compassion falls under the umbrella of the construct of discipline and competency skill development, which is now discussed. Discipline The construct of discipline is emphasized throughout Mahāyāna Buddhism, as it is a central to in order to cultivate the state of mind necessary for the minimization of suffering and for cultivation of compassionate care. Adherence to the noble eightfold path: (a) right view, (b) right resolve, (c) right speech, (d) right action, (e) right livelihood, (f) right effort, (g) right mindfulness, (h) right meditation and precepts: (Keown, 2005) requires intention to live virtuously. Cultivation of insight, wisdom, and virtuosity required to live this path is affiliated with the practice of meditation which entails discipline. There is a diversity of styles of meditation, all with different aims and intentions. A brief overview of meditation and the practice of mindfulness will be considered as it is the vehicle to compassionate being and is central to Buddhism. Meditation and mindfulness. Many forms and styles of meditation have been constructed and passed on through humanity’s spiritual traditions (Bogart, 1991). The vast majority of styles have a central premise, which focuses on the withdrawal of attention from the outer world and from typical patterns of perception, with an accompanying experience of inner awareness. Meditation denotes self-experience, self-realization, and from Buddhist traditions, it is a practice that aims to achieve the ultimate truth and view of reality (PerezDe-Albeniz, 2000). The process of meditation has been described as “…the attainment of a deeply restful yet fully alert state practiced as a self-regulatory approach to stress reduction and emotion management” (Murata et al., 2004, p. 189). Meditation on Buddhism’s central 39 virtues, non-attachment, benevolence, and understanding assists with the cultivation of virtuous being (Keown, 2005). Kabat-Zinn (1993) maintains that mindfulness targets a person’s attitude resulting in a general sense of well-being through the cultivation of wisdom. Wisdom and greater awareness is developed through mindfulness practice, which assists people “…live each moment of their lives –even the painful ones –as fully as possible (Kabat-Zinn, 1993, p. 260). Glaser (2005) discusses the mindful and meditative practice of lojong, which is a form of mind training that can assist in cultivating equanimity. Equanimity, as defined by The Oxford Dictionary, Pollard (1994), is “calmness of mind or temper” (p. 269). Glaser maintains that equanimity is “…not a necessary constituent of the compassion we ordinarily feel” (p. 133), as typical compassion we are familiar with can be rather limited by being reserved for a select few. Furthermore, equanimity provides a stable emotional foundation from which to properly cultivate compassion. Glaser (2005) outlines the three stages of equanimity development in accordance to lojong mindfulness practice, which are: (a) motivational equanimity, where “we deeply wish for all beings-without exception-to have happiness and be free of suffering” (p. 133); (b) dissolving projections, which focuses on “dissolving projections of friends, enemies, and neutral persons by investigating and seeing through our attachment, anger, and indifference; and (c) building on the previous two, through reflection on similarity to others and “realize that all beings are, in this deepest sense, like ourselves, we come to see our equality with them, and we arouse a passionate commitment to work for the benefit of all others” (p. 133). A full account of meditation and mindfulness training is beyond the scope of this paper, yet it is important to emphasize that both are central disciplines for cultivation of 40 attention, awareness, and virtuous being. In Buddhist thinking, “the person who can control attention can therefore control and cultivate specific [virtuous] emotions and motives” (Corsini & Wedding, 2000). In Western psychology, the construct of discipline is interwoven throughout ethical training and practice. The standards indicated in the CPA code of ethics “range from minimal behavioral expectations to more idealized [aspirational], but achievable, attitudes and behaviours” (Pettifor, 1996). Discipline rooted in ethical training and in the CPA code of ethics are discussed. Pettifor et al. (2002) postulate that the literature on teaching ethics to psychologists entails the following perspectives: (a) the “need to know the rules and prescriptions on what is considered right and wrong behavior in order to behave correctly and to defend themselves against allegations of misconduct” (p. 262), and (b) the “need to be able to identify dilemmas and to use ethical decision-making steps and critical thinking in order to apply moral principles to resolve these dilemmas” (p. 262). According to Pettifor et al. (2002) “the learning of ethics implies that the learners are familiar with the information obtained and that they are able to integrate all the learning components into effective decision-making through a process of critical reflection and personal experience” (p. 262). A commitment towards competency skill development, self-assessment, and engaging in reflexive thinking is critical for learning and practice of ethics in Western psychology. The CPA code of ethics decision making steps promote critical thought and problem-solving by intent (Pettifor et al., 2002), which allow for an aspirational focus. Pettifor et al. (2002) maintains that a variety of strategies for learning in ethics training, experiential, interactive, problem-based, case study analysis, and vignette review, are beneficial. Moreover, “individuals may be capable of using 41 different learning styles as long as they facilitate an integration of knowledge, skills, and selfawareness” (p. 267). In Western psychology, in line with competence and cognitive complexity skill development required for a working aptitude for application of the CPA code of ethics, it appears knowledge and skill application is more readily measurable (Fuentes et al., 2005); whereas “…values and attitudes may be more difficult to assess as they are not created in graduate school and are not limited to professional spheres of activity” (p. 365). Consideration of the role of discipline in Buddhism and Western psychology has resulted in the salient construct of reflexivity as a common theme interwoven through both perspectives. Self-reflexivity is the process of “…stepping back from what is known, what is being said, and what can be learned several times throughout the process, paying close attention to similarities, differences, anomalies, and personal reactions” (Arthur & Collins, 2006, p. 287). A commitment towards opening up awareness to internal processes to enhance learning is underscored in Buddhist and Western methods of ethical training. Dockett, Dudley-Grant, & Bankart (2003) maintain that “understanding of oneself ultimately promotes understanding of and the ability to help others” (p. 106). A point of divergence when considering the construct of discipline in both Buddhism and Western psychology is notable in relation to the personal/professional distinction. In Buddhism, an emphasis on awareness of interconnectedness, responsibility to end suffering, and the cultivation of wisdom towards virtuosity results in a form of being that is to be actively cultivated mindfully in each moment of conscious awareness and is manifested in all thoughts and actions. Dockett et al., (2003) discuss that the Buddha encourages selfdiscipline and reflexivity and “…counsels people to continually reflect on the consequences 42 of their actions before proceeding and to refrain from actions that are not conducive to harmony in each situation [italics added]” (p. 148). Virtuous being in Buddhist thought is to be cultivated moment-by-moment, which is in line with the present moment reality orientation of Buddhist culture (Dockett et al., 2003). Western psychology appears to place a larger emphasis on a linear path entailing a future focus (Dockett et al., 2003). This emphasis, coupled with a greater orientation towards individualism and reductionism, results in boundaries in personal / professional distinction. Such boundaries are essential in respecting individual autonomy and ensuring protection from harm. A distinct boundary can be noted in the CPA code of ethics when considering that psychologists have “…an affirmative duty to indicate when they are speaking as a matter of a personal opinion as opposed to speaking as experts” (Pipes et al., 2005). It is important to note that not all Western paradigms relating to ethics in psychology maintain a segregation between the personal and professional. For example, Feminist Psychology postulates that “…personal values and professional identity are inextricably interwoven with the idea of professional values and ethics” (p. 329). Virtue ethics, which appears to be a common overarching guiding philosophy in Buddhism and in the CPA code of ethics, suggests that “…the kind of person someone is (in some total sense) drives what the person does and how the person thinks in the professional as well as in the personal realm” (Pipes et al., 2005, p. 330). After comparison, it appears that underlying universal values of benevolence, compassion, and self-reflexivity, affiliated with both Buddhist and Western ethical systems, are prevalent regardless of worldview, dichotomous classification of individualism / collectivism, future / present orientation, and, thus, classification according to cultural influence. 43 In light of universal shared values between Buddhist and Western culture it is essential to re-visit emic and etic perspectives, as these perspectives impact understanding of multicultural correspondence (Arthur & Collins, 2006). The emic vantage point maintains that “specific cultural knowledge” (p. 18) is required when working with diverse groups. Therefore, an emphasis is placed on understanding cultural uniqueness through ontological and epistemological considerations that are compatible with unique cultural experiences. In essence, a “culture-specific” (p. 18) orientation is maintained from this perspective. The Etic vantage point postulates that there are “commonalties across cultural groups” (p. 18) and that “encounters are multicultural in nature” (p. 18). Therefore, a stronger universal orientation is maintained. Pros and cons of the emic and etic debate are beyond the scope of this discussion, yet awareness of each is beneficial when considering implications of a merging of minds from Buddhist and Western frames of reference. Consideration of emic presuppositions honour cultural backgrounds through promoting awareness of cultural uniqueness (Arthur & Collins, 2006), yet making specific cultural conclusions based on cultural reductionism may run the risk of marginalization and erroneous assumptions. Etic presuppositions honour a “heterogeneity of experiences” (p. 20) and that mindset that “although clients may have similar backgrounds, their experiences, their worldview, and their needs are never identical” (p. 20). Arthur & Collins (2006) present a balanced approach when considering emic and etic perspectives emphasising culturally-infused practice. Balance is central to the Mahāyāna path in Buddhism which postulates a middle-path pertaining to the noble eight-fold path and virtuous being. 44 It appears that a culturally infused mindset, which can be directed towards the cultivation of compassion and virtuous livelihood through a disciplined practice, is indicative of a middle-path in Buddhism and Western practice of ethics in psychology. An emphasis on reflexivity and the integration of new learning is in accordance with Buddhism and Western competency skill development, which should commence with internal mental processes of the individual. Awareness cultivated by the individual through disciplined introspection, paradoxically, may promote generation of genuine awareness of interconnectedness with all and hence genuine compassion when orientation towards other as self predominates and a virtuous ethical perspective is maintained. Integration After comparing Buddhism and Western ethics philosophy and the CPA code of ethics, it appears to the writer that practical postulations rooted in ethical philosophical theory require not reductionism, but construct infusion and interconnectedness of perspectives. By cognizance of universal values, and competent manifestation of these values through action based on linguistically clear meaning-making processes, aspirational being and practice may be realized. Universal values appear to be categorized as external phenomena based on a Western dominant reference point. Moreover, universal values appear to require internal cultivation and identification as a preliminary action when borrowing from Buddhist wisdom. Internal cultivation of genuine compassion, derived from practice of discipline and reflexivity, may then lead to multicultural unity. This result may further substantiate a universal declaration for psychologists by bridging the gap between Buddhist and Western ethical systems and, consequentially, promoting a balance between head and heart in our other oriented field. 45 As the comparison of Buddhist and Western ethical perspectives comes to a close, consideration of implications warrant consideration in order to bring the aforementioned mindset into the realms of practical application and into the global arena. 46 Implications The comparison between Buddhism and Western ethics discourse and the CPA code of ethics suggests to the author that the middle path between universal value identification and honouring individual uniqueness and cultural diversity is of paramount importance. Hershock (2000) maintains that “the proper orientation of [human] rights conversations would thus be toward developing an appreciation of contributory uniqueness and a cultivation of the harmonic possibilities opened up by our very differences” (p. 26). The common reference point of compassion as a guiding phenomenon of profound influence may bridge differences in linguistics, economics, politics, religious affiliation, and cultural diversity so a universal way of ethically being in the world can evolve. The implications of not opening up to the possibilities to other frames of reference in a culturally infused manner may result in what Miovic (2004) describes as pseudo-respect. Moreover, “[f]or how can we honestly claim to ‘respect’ a client’s [/international cohort’s] religious/spiritual life [or professional world view] unless we genuinely hold open the possibility that his or her world view may reflect correct perceptions about the actual nature of reality?” (p. 106). As a result, a sense of urgency ensues as we attend to ethical concerns in local and global arenas. Prior to discussion of implications on an international level practical applications of merging Buddhist and Western paradigms are discussed. This study supports the concept of infusion of virtuous learning and being for practitioners in ethics discourse. Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy (2000) propose a synthesis of philosophical schools of thought where teleology, deontology, and existentialism are all considered adjunct to consideration of the following influences: individual development, nature of the specific dilemma, impact of significant others, cultural climate and context, and 47 external influences (society, politics, etc.). The CPA code of ethics ten step decision making process is then considered in conjunction with the aforementioned reflexive and global synthesis (internal and external influences) in relation to the ethical dilemma. Harper (2006) presents the construct of ethical multiculturalism when engaging in concept analysis of nursing research literature on ethics and cross-cultural ethical issues. Harper (2006) presents that “cross-cultural ethical issues must be considered in view of linguistic, cultural, and economic differences” (p. 110) and postulates that ethical multiculturalism “… recognizes fundamental [universal] ethical principles but allows such principles to be applied in a culturally relevant manner” (p. 111). Global values of compassionate care and benevolence supersede cultural divides in the culturally infused mindset of both Buddhist ethics and the CPA code of ethics. Ethics training in the West often entails learning rules, standards, and principles, and having experiential exposure to integrate learning. Handelsman, Knapp, & Cottlieb (2005) are concerned with maintaining solely a Western perspective by indicating: The clinical practicum milieu may include factors that inhibit the ability of new trainees to learn how to think through complex ethical issues. These factors may include the reliance on supervisors that occurs early in clinical training, a lack of time for reflection, and the necessity to act. (p. 63) The infusion of Buddhist ethical practice with Western systems would complement ethical training and practice for psychologists and would assist to prepare them for cultural collaboration. Mindfulness and meditation would contribute to counselling practice that is reflexive and compassionately oriented. 48 Compatibility of Western and Buddhist ethical thinking on a practical level, as opposed to solely on a philosophical level, entails redirection towards salient universal values, while respecting cultural differences. For example, freedom of consent has different meaning depending on cultural context. Asian perspectives place greater emphasis on the collective view of consent, whereas Western culture emphasizes the autonomous self, protecting individual rights. By shifting the emphasis towards the values of benevolent care and respecting compassionately the unique cultural needs of the individual we enter a sphere of practice where consent is still honoured, but through a culturally infused lens. This results in openness towards aspirational reframing as opposed to the rigidity of paradigm-centric practice. Universal values may also be considered when examining dual relationships. Dual relationships may be defined as “…assuming a second role with a client, becoming [counsellor or] social worker and friend, employer, teacher, business associate, family member, or sex partner.” (Kagle & Giebelhausen, 1994, p. 213). A psychologist may be entering into a dual relationship whether he/she enters the second relationship before, during, or after the therapeutic relationship. The CPA code of ethics maintains that a psychologist is to “…[m]anage dual or multiple relationships that are unavoidable due to cultural norms or other circumstances in such manner that bias, lack of objectivity, and risk of exploitation are minimized” (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001, p. 85). An emphasis placed on being mindful of cultural norms, while ensuring benevolent action through reflexivity, is implicitly present in the CPA code of ethics. The manifestation of the aspirational value of true compassion and benevolence entails culturally infused ethical practice, which first commences with selfreflexivity. A shift towards conscious and explicit awareness of aspirational practice appears to be the next phase towards realizing virtue ethics locally and globally. A collaborative 49 union of Buddhist constructs and CPA code of ethics may support the underlying premise of the Universal Declaration for Psychologists. A key aim of the Universal Declaration of Ethical Principles for Psychologists (Ad Hoc Joint Committee: Draft Proposal –2007-06-14) is to provide: A shared moral framework that will help to ensure that members of the psychology community recognize that they carry out their activities within a larger social context and that they must act with integrity, and develop and apply psychological knowledge and skills in a manner that benefits humanity and that prevents such knowledge and skills from being used to harm or oppress persons or peoples. (p. 1) A joint Buddhist and Western reality, where interconnectedness through genuine compassion is of the essence, would be possible in a shared psychological community in which relationships to the larger social context are maintained. Practical application of personal reflexivity and a culturally infused mindset in professional and personal practice may open the door for collaboration with others on a new level. An impediment to the aspirational mindset that has resulted from this comparative work is a paradigm-centric view. A paradigm-centric view entails one reality superseding the potentialities and realisation of other ones. It appears the reverse may be true where multiple paradigms complement each other when considering virtuous being. The results of this comparative assessment support a call for merging the Western world view ethical thinking and the values and beliefs of other cultures and religions. Such a union could not be more important or timely when considering the current reality of “the proliferation of scientific and applied specialisation, regional revitalisation, the expansion of psychology in developing countries, the feminisation of psychology, and the emergence of 50 new paradigms that accentuate contextual realities and challenges (e.g., multiculturalism and indigenization)” (Stevens & Wedding, 2004, p. 481) on an international level. An alternative focus appears to be warranted where instead of an emphasis on holding a right answer, superior mechanism, or absolute way of viewing ethics in the world, being open to potentials which may result from diversity and uniqueness that are beyond the scope of our present understanding may prove to result in interesting discoveries about ourselves and our international cohorts. While this study highlights the compatibility of Buddhist values with those of Western psychology, further study is needed to compare the values of other major world religions with those of Western society and with each other. 51 Conclusion A comparison between Buddhism and Western philosophical ethics and the CPA code of ethics resulted in key constructs warranting consideration; compassion, human suffering, benevolence, and clear adherence towards a virtuous discipline appear to be pivotal in order to engage in constructive, ethically sound interactions with ourselves, our local colleagues, and our international brothers and sisters. The essence of virtuous being, resulting from this comparative work, commences with an effective merging of head and heart. Merging of perspectives can result in wise ethical practice through the genuine cultivation of compassion with intent, and through the process of individual reflexivity, and a culturally infused mindset. 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