Download A Comparison of Buddhist Philosophy with Western Codes of Ethics

ATHABASCA UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY
UNIVERSITY OF LETHBRIDGE
A COMPARISON OF BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY WITH WESTERN CODES OF
ETHICS FOR PSYCHOLOGISTS: SUPPORTING A UNIVERSAL DECLARATION
BY
MICHAEL FEDYNIAK
A Final Project submitted to the
Campus Alberta Applied Psychology: Counselling Initiative
in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF COUNSELLING
Alberta
(August, 2007)
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Abstract
Ethics in psychology entails consideration of central values for virtuous practice. Genuine
awareness of shared values and alternate world view perspectives are essential if
collaboration on an international level is to be effective. This project examines the
merging of minds through including a comparison between a Buddhist philosophical
world view with Western philosophy and the CPA code of ethics for psychologists. The
comparison may bridge understanding of the two paradigms, which in turn can guide
ethical practice. Buddhist values of compassion, benevolence, human suffering, and
discipline are worthy constructs for consideration in the arena of ethics. Cognisance of
linguistic meaning of these constructs is required. The process of self-reflexive and
multicultural competence may enhance the practice of psychology.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to take this opportunity to thank Dr. J. Pettifor and Dr. A. Barber for their
support and involvement in this project. Their expertise assisted my learning and was
greatly valued. I would also like to acknowledge ongoing encouragement and support
from my good friend James McDonald.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page……………………………………………………………………………i
Supervisor Signature Page………………………………………………………….ii
Second Reader Signature Page……………………………………………………..iii
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………..iv
Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………v
Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………...vi
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………1
Purpose and Goals…………………………………………………………..1
Rationale…………………………………………………………………….2
Theoretical Foundations……………………………………………………………..4
Western Philosophy…………………………………………………………4
Teleology……………………………………………………………5
Utilitarianism………………………………………………..5
Virtue ethics…………………………………………………5
Deontology………………………………………………………….6
Social contract theory……………………………………….6
Divine deontology…………………………………………..6
Intuitive deontology…………………………………………7
Existentialism……………………………………………………….7
The Canadian Code of Ethics……………………………………………….8
Ethical Principles……………………………………………………9
Decision-Making Model……………………………………………11
Buddhist Philosophy………………………………………………………..12
Core Principles……………………………………………………...13
Dharma & Karma…………………………………………...13
Four Noble Truths & The Noble Eight-Fold Path ……….....14
Precepts……………………………………………………………...14
Virtues……………………………………………………………….15
Teleology……………………………………………………………16
Utilitarianism………………………………………………..16
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Virtue ethics.………………………………………………...16
Deontology………………………………………………………….17
Existentialism……………………………………………………….17
Procedures…………………………………………………………………………..19
Methodology for Review of the Literature…………………………………19
Research Collaboration……………………………………………………..20
Research Reflexivity………………………………………………………..20
Comparative Assessment……………………………………………………………23
Western and Buddhist Worldview Assessment……………………………..24
Positivism/ Post-Positivist Paradigm………………………………..24
Interpretive/ Constructivist Paradigm……………………………….25
Emancipatory Paradigm……………………………………………..27
Discussion and Comparison of Key Constructs……………………………..30
Compassion………………………………………………………….30
Foundation of Compassion………………………………………….31
Impediments to Compassion………………………………………...33
Suffering…………………………………………………………….35
Postpositivist paradigm……………………………………...36
Interpretive/ constructivist paradigm………………………..37
Emancipator paradigm………………………………………37
Discipline……………………………………………………………39
Meditation and mindfulness………………………………....39
Integration……………………………………………………………………45
Implications………………………………………………………………………….47
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………...52
References……………………………………………………………………………53
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A COMPARISON OF BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY WITH WESTERN CODES OF
ETHICS FOR PSYCHOLOGISTS: SUPPORTING A UNIVERSAL DECLARATION
Introduction
Purpose and Goals
Current scholastic insight into ethics in psychology presents a calling to re-examine
virtue and moral values as its “base for ethical behaviour, thinking, and being” (Pettifor,
1996, p. 1). Implications of this calling are that ethical thoughts, actions, and behaviors of
psychologists are interwoven through their every professional interaction. Thus ethical
responsibility is incorporated in our personal lives rather than consisting of only rule based
ethical prescriptions for the office. The purpose of this study is to re-visit virtue and moral
values as a basis for ethical practice through a comparison of Buddhist philosophy with
Western codes of ethics for psychologists; for example, the code of ethics outlined by the
Canadian Psychological Association (CPA, 2000). The results will be relevant in considering
the feasibility of a universal declaration of ethical principles for psychologists. In accordance
with the above purpose, this research project is to promote awareness of aspirational
standards of practice that are reflective of “the highest ethical ideals in their professional and
scientific work” (International Union of Psychological Science Ad Hoc Joint Committee,
2005, p. 2). The Buddhist concept of compassion may be the primary link between Eastern
and Western approaches to ethical thinking.
Virtue and moral values will be considered through achievement of the following
research goals. The first goal is to compare ethical principles (Respect for the Dignity of
Persons and Responsibility to Society) in the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists
(2000) with Eastern Buddhist philosophical frameworks on ethics. The second goal is to
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explore the relevance of compassion as a vehicle for aspirational ethics. The third goal is to
examine whether common humanity seems to supersede cultural differences when
considering a universal declaration of shared values. This third goal may provide insight into
consideration of the importance of cultural beliefs and ethics in the global arena (Pettifor,
2006).
This research comparison between Western CPA code of ethics and Buddhist
philosophy provides a rationale for the scholarly comparative assessment along with relevant
theoretical foundational underpinnings. Discussion also considers the methodology and
procedures used, followed by comparative analysis and synthesis of findings, and closing
comments on the implications of the results.
Rationale
Within the field of psychology we are seeing “the proliferation of scientific and
applied specialisation, regional revitalisation, the expansion of psychology in developing
countries, the feminisation of psychology, and the emergence of new paradigms that
accentuate contextual realities and challenges (e.g., multiculturalism and indigenization)”
(Stevens & Wedding, 2004, p. 481) on an international level. In light of these realities,
psychologists will benefit substantially from interconnectedness with other professionals
beyond their own national frames of reference. The endeavour of interconnection requires
awareness of cultural infusion and understanding (Arthur & Collins, 2006), which then opens
the door for global awareness of universal values and morality within the domain of ethics.
The current draft of the Universal Declaration of Ethical Principles for Psychologists
(International Union of Psychological Science Ad Hoc Joint Committee, 2005) addresses
global awareness of universal values as it acknowledges that “the lives and identities of
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human beings both individually and collectively are connected across generations, and that
there is a reciprocal relationship between human beings and their natural and social
environments.” (p. 2).
Over half of the current world population lives in a region where Buddhist philosophy
presently is, or has been, an influential or dominant cultural force (Harvey, 2000). Thus,
when considering collaboration and offering services on a global level, in an ethically sound
and culturally infused manner, it stands to reason that awareness of what a Buddhist
philosophical outlook has to say is very relevant. It is also relevant to consider the
philosophical outlook of other major world religions.
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Theoretical Foundations
Theory promotes an understanding of concepts by “establishing relationships
between or among constructs that describe or explain a phenomenon by going beyond the
local event and trying to connect it with similar events” (Mertens, 1998, p. 2). Theoretical
underpinnings, then, are critical for establishing a foundation of understanding when
considering the topic of ethics in psychology. Theoretical postulates from Western
philosophy and Eastern Buddhist philosophy suggest that “psychology’s formulation and
practice of ethics are connected to a larger world which includes foundations in the world’s
wisdom traditions in philosophy and religion” (Pettifor, 1996, p. 1).
Western Philosophy
Western ethics are examined relative to the dominant schools of thought of teleology,
deontology, and existentialism. The guiding principles, value statements, and decision
making steps outlined in the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists (Canadian
Psychological Association, 2000) are described in relation to the aforementioned
philosophical schools of thought.
Ethics is “the study of good and bad, and of the general nature of morals in different
societies” (Pettifor, 2004, p. 265). Discussion on ethics has a longstanding history and the
relationship between individuals and society has extended through the age of enlightenment
and continues to present day (Pipes, Holstein, & Aguirre, 2005). The dominant schools of
teleology, deontology, and existentialism are examined with particular attention to three of
the most central theories of ethics influencing the Western world: utilitarianism, virtue ethics,
and deontology (Keown, 2005; Pettifor, 1996). It should be noted that there are many variant
interpretations within each of these three central theoretical approaches.
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Teleology
Teleology is an ends-oriented theoretical school of thought that encompasses both
utilitarian and virtue ethics. Theoretical postulates of each are outlined.
Utilitarianism. The main tenet of utilitarianism is that “the greatest pleasure and least
pain for the greatest number is the criterion for what is ethically good” (Hadjistavropoulos &
Malloy, 2000, p. 104). Utilitarianism is a philosophical perspective proposed by Jeremy
Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), in which good is judged by the
expectation of good consequences (Keown, 2005). Moreover, utilitarian ideology proposes
that the ends justify the means with the salient consideration being the greatest good for the
greatest number (Pettifor, 1996). An advocate of utilitarian principles would argue the
possibility of calculating the greater good through the use of cost-benefit assessment
(Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). The notion of “rule-utilitarianism” (p. 105) has been
considered which advocates that the greatest good should be realized through the process of
following prescribed rules.
Virtue ethics. Virtue ethics is also end-oriented and rooted in teleology
(Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). Virtue ethics, developed by Aristotle, advocates for the
position that the ultimate good is a life well-lived (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). The
essence of virtue ethics is “not simply to follow certain kinds of rules, nor seek pleasant
consequences, but first and foremost to be or become a certain kind of [moral] person”
(Keown, 2005, p. 23). Virtue, as presented by Aristotle, “is its own reward” (Keown, 2005, p.
25) where a virtuous person can be expected to lead a more rewarding and fulfilling life. It
has been indicated that virtue-based ethics seems to be “making a comeback in both science
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and practice, largely because of dissatisfaction with rule-governed or action-centered ethical
systems” (Pettifor, 1996, p. 5).
Critics of teleology argue that because it is ends oriented, it fails to consider means or
“authentic intent” (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000, p. 106). More specifically, the
utilitarian mindset has been criticised for violating respect for individuals who may have
been exploited or oppressed for an anticipated or expected greater outcome (Pettifor, 1996).
Deontology
Deontology underscores the importance of abiding by principles
(Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). Deontological systems, rooted in the philosophical
thought of Kant, place emphasis on duty and obligation and are characterized by
retrospective insight for justification. Furthermore, the unconditional regard for each
individual takes precedence over the collective group. An advocate of deontology would
maintain that “human beings should never be exploited or manipulated merely as a means to
an end” (Pettifor, 1996, p. 6), thus “the end never justifies the means” (p. 6). Deontology has
several variations: social contract theory, divine deontology, and intuitive deontology
(Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000).
Social contract theory. In social contract theory “members of society collectively
agree upon certain standards or principles of behaviour (Rousseau, 1762/1979)”
(Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000, p. 105). Ethical behavior, therefore, entails acting in
accordance to standards set forth by the society and the profession of psychology.
Divine deontology. Divine deontology emphasize principles, rules, or commandments
which are provided by divine authority in the form of religious doctrine or affiliated texts
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(Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). Behaving ethically in accordance to divine deontology,
for example, entails following rules set forth by God or a higher divinity.
Intuitive deontology. Intuitive deontology is a perspective towards ethics which views
right conduct as that which “any rational person would condone using his or her intuitive
ability to reason ethically (e.g., Kant’s [1788/1977] categorical imperative or Ross’s [1975]
primae facie theory)” (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000, p. 105).
The deontological perspective has been criticized for focusing on the means
(Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000) without consideration for the end results and,
consequentially, the collective good of society.
Existentialism
The existential school of thought maintains the belief that a free process exists for the
individual to create his/her own essence, and carve out who one genuinely is
(Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). Sartre (1957/1998), a 20th century French
existentialist, “argued that ‘existence precedes essence’” (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000,
p. 106), thus we exist as humans and then, through the process of free will, we become who
we believe we should be through free choice. An advocate of existential thought maintains
that the responsibility for behavior rests on an individual’s shoulders. Furthermore, according
to this perspective “all actions may influence all individuals, all of society, or all of
humanity” (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000, p. 106).
Existentialism has also been subjected to criticism. Arguments against existential
postulates pertaining to ethics have maintained that the theory lacks methodology and offers
little guidance supplementing the proposed insight that an individual should be responsible
and authentic (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000).
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The theoretical perspectives of utilitarianism, virtue ethics, and deontology contribute
to the philosophical mosaic of the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists. A brief
overview of the philosophical orientations reflected in the CPA code is considered.
The Canadian Code of Ethics
A primary purpose of professional codes of ethics is to guide and regulate practice in
ways that protect the public from harm. Therefore, professional codes are very practical in
addressing issues of current concern within the profession. At the same time, the
determination of what is right and wrong behavior is influenced by philosophical and
religious values and concepts, and from historical and current events (Pettifor, 1996), all of
which have affiliation with the aforementioned theoretical perspectives. Codes of ethics are
described as “living documents that continue to evolve and grow in order to guide
psychologists in their professional relationships” (Pettifor, Sinclair, & Strong, 2005).
Inasmuch as the underlying values of codes of ethics reflect cultural mores and values of the
society in which they are rooted (Pettifor, Estay, & Paquet, 2002), codes evolve to
accommodate changing values in society. Today “all professional codes of ethics and codes
of conduct address in one way or another the issues of respect, rights, confidentiality,
informed consent, diversity, well-being of consumers, competency, professional boundaries,
conflict of interest, honesty, and, sometimes, responsibility to society” (Pettifor et al., 2002,
p. 260).
Ethical principles of the CPA code are outlined, followed by affiliated value
statements that fall within the context of the utilitarian, deontological, and virtue-based
philosophical approaches. The decision making component of the CPA code, and its
philosophical orientation, is also discussed.
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Ethical Principles
Jordan and Meara (1990) propose that a focus on relevant ethical principles in
relation to ethical dilemmas provides psychologists with required tools to conceptualize the
challenging demands of our pluralistic society. They denote principle ethics to be
“approaches that emphasize the use of rational, objective, universal, and impartial principles
in the ethical analysis of dilemmas” (p. 107). Principle ethics delineated in the CPA code are
as follows: (a) Principle 1, Respect for the Dignity of Persons, (b) Principle II, Responsible
Caring, (c) Principle III, Integrity in Relationships, and (d) Principle IV, Responsibility to
Society (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001). A central structure to the CPA code is having the
standard and value statements specifically linked to affiliated principles.
It is my observation that the aforementioned principles are grounded in philosophical
theory despite the differing viewpoints that exist within philosophical classifications of
principles. Principle I, Respect for the Dignity of Persons, has been described as
“fundamentally Kantian (i.e., deontological” (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000, p. 110), as
it emphasizes rights of the individual which are not compromised as a means for the benefit
of the larger group. Value statements under this principle outline general respect, general
rights, non-discrimination, fair treatment, informed consent, freedom of consent, protection
of vulnerable persons, privacy, and confidentially (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001), all of which
honour the concept of individual autonomy. Principle II, Responsible Caring, may be viewed
through a teleological lens, as the values under this principle (general caring, competency
and self-knowledge, risk/benefit analysis, maximum benefit, offset & correcting harm, care
of animals, and extended responsibility) (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001) emphasize consequences
or outcomes (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). For example, one measure of the level of
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professional competency and self-knowledge of a psychologist may be correlated to client
outcome; being a self-aware person and a reflective thinker are characteristics affiliated with
master therapists when compared to novice therapists (Jennings & Skovholt, 1999). Principle
III, Integrity in Relationships, emphasizes the value statements: accuracy of practice,
honesty, openness, lack of bias, straightforwardness, avoidance of incomplete disclosure,
avoidance of conflicts of interest, reliance on the discipline, and extended responsibility
(Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001). Thus existentialist philosophical roots are salient with an
overarching emphasis of authenticity (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). Principle IV,
Responsibility to Society, places an underlying focus on respecting rules and affiliated values
of society, and therefore has deontological roots (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000). Value
statements, such as development of knowledge, beneficial activities, respect for society,
development of society, and extended responsibility to society (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001)
underscore adherence to respecting societal laws and rules, and advocate for change
regarding harmful elements of society. Value statements that provide guidance to change
aspects of society that violate ethical principles are aspirational in nature.
The principles Respect for the Dignity of Persons, Responsible Caring, Integrity in
Relationships, and Responsibility to Society have been designated as aspirational in focus
with a holistic virtue-based orientation ensuing (Pettifor, 1996; Pettifor et al., 2005). The
CPA code clearly links principles with value statements in an aspirational fashion (Pettifor,
1996), which together contribute to the “highest standards of ethical thinking, behaving, and
some would say being” (p. 2). Virtue ethics place a primary focus on an individual’s
character as opposed to a particular solution to an ethical dilemma (Fuentes, Yarrow, &
Willmuth, 2005). Furthermore, the unique components of virtue ethics are “the identification
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of the motivation, emotion, character, ideals, and moral habits of a person who functions in
the traditions and practices of a culture, group, or community” (p. 364). The principle
Respect for the Dignity of Persons, for example, indicates a virtue-based, aspirational focus
through identifying that all persons possess moral rights with the addition of a caveat that the
manner in which such rights are honored and exercised vary across cultures and
communities.
Decision-Making Model
The decision-making model has roots in utilitarian philosophy by considering the
consequences of alternative courses of action resulting from the decision-making steps.
Assessing the consequences requires a comparison of the proposed actions to the four
aspirational ethical principles. The decision-making model promotes the sharing of ideas and
a deeper understanding of human relations. A moral dilemma approach is supported which
encourages collaborative relating between concerned parties (Pettifor et al., 2005). The steps
are virtue-based as they depend on good character rather than rule based prescriptions for
good behaviour. Adherence to the principle of responsibility to society reveals a focused
awareness on the collective good of the community.
The CPA code, with its balance between respect and caring for others, and care and
concern for society, has roots in deontology, teleology, virtue, and existential philosophy.
In summary, ethical principles provide a philosophical foundation to support ethical
decision making and action, and the development of codes of ethics, and codes of conduct
(Jordan & Meara, 1990). It should be noted that codes of conduct in and of themselves
represent enforcement of minimal standards of behavior deemed ethically acceptable
(Pettifor, 1996). Virtues and values, on the other hand, reflect “the internal composition of
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character” (Jordan & Meara, 1990, p. 109) and thus the highest aspirational focus when
considered in accordance to ethical principles. May (1984), as cited in Jordan & Meara
(1990), maintained that virtues are not mere correlates of affiliated principles, rather, they
“represent ideals for the professional that go beyond the boundaries of rules or principles” (p.
110).
The CPA code, designed to minimize harm and maintain an aspirational agenda, is
influenced by the values of the culture in which it was created. Western influence on the
values of “…individual responsibility, achievement and decision making may conflict with
cultural values of family, community, interdependence, and collective identity” (Pettifor,
2001, p. 29). Thus consideration of additional ethical philosophical influence (Eastern
Buddhism) is worthy of elaboration. Over half of the current world population lives in a
region where Buddhist philosophy presently is, or has been, an influential or dominant
cultural force (Harvey, 2000).
Buddhist philosophy
In Buddhism “right [or appropriate] view” (Harvey, 2000, p. 11) is considered to be
the foundation of moral development. The major traditional schools of thought in Buddhist
philosophy are the pre- Mahāyāna and Mahāyāna disciplines (Tachibana, 1992).
Comprehensive study of Buddhist ethics has been rather complex due to the breadth and
range of subject matter (Heim, 2007). Furthermore, many of the 200 Mahāyāna texts have
not been translated and freedom from government restrictions in East Asian regions has
occurred only recently (Chappell, 1996). Mahāyāna philosophy is most closely related to the
central focus in this project as Mahāyāna places special emphasis on serving others (Keown,
2005). Yet the theoretical underpinnings presented are reflective of Buddhist philosophy as a
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whole. A brief overview of the moral core of Buddhist thought is provided followed by
theoretical and philosophical foundations.
The moral core of Buddhism entails principles, precepts, and virtues elucidated by
Shakyamuni (Buddha) (Keown, 2005). Core principles of Dharma, including the four noble
truths and the eight-fold path, and karma are discussed, along with the five precepts and
central virtues. Consideration of the philosophical classification of Buddhist ethics and
affiliated worldviews, using Western terminology, are also provided. Theoretical analysis of
Buddhist thought will close with consideration of the construct of compassion which is a
pivotal value in Mahāyāna philosophy (Chappell, 1996).
Core Principles
Dharma & Karma. Dharma includes the tenet of a “universal law which governs both
the physical and moral order of the universe” (Keown, 2005, p. 3). Dharma entails the
principle of order and regularity prevalent in natural phenomena; the idea of a universal
moral law with affiliated requirements being revealed by enlightened individuals is an
adjunct postulate (Keown, 2005). “Dharma is manifested in the law of karma” (p. 4), which
governs the process whereby moral deeds influence individuals in their present and future
existence. Simply stated, karma means a particular kind of moral action, that is indicative of
good and bad things that happen to an individual –consequential actions (Keown, 2005).
Good and bad are essentially seen to be a matter of intention and based on an individual’s
choices. It is important to emphasize that karma does not claim that everything that happens
to a person is determined solely by karma (Keown, 2005). For example, some events such as
winning a game or catching the flu may happen merely as random events. Moreover,
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individuals are always “free to resist previous conditioning and establishing new patterns of
behaviour” (p. 7).
Four Noble Truths & The Noble Eight-fold Path. The four noble truths foundational
to Buddhism are: (a) all existence is suffering, (b) suffering is caused by craving, (c)
suffering can have an end, and (d) the means to the end of suffering is through following the
Noble Eight-fold Path (Keown, 2005). The fourth noble truth, the Noble Eight-fold Path,
outlines the means in which one can obtain an enlightened state, thus seeing truth as to how
things are in reality. The Eight-fold Path is as follows: (a) right view, (b) right resolve, (c)
right speech, (d), right action, (e), right livelihood, (f), right effort, (g) right mindfulness, and
(h) right meditation (Keown, 2005; Saddhatissa, 1970). Right view and resolve entail an
insight oriented division, whereas right speech, action, and livelihood are indicative of the
morality division; right effort, mindfulness, and meditation are encompassed in the
meditation division. Right path denotes a path of “…practical wisdom [and] is described by
the Buddha as producing vision (cakkhukaraņi) and understanding (ñāņakaraņi), conducive
to the attainment or higher knowledge (abhiññā), enlightenment (sambodhi), and peace or
tranquility (nibbāna)” (Wei-hsun Fu & Wawrytko, 1991, p. 134).
In summary, individuals have free will to engage in the aforementioned principles
and path where they essentially create themselves through moral choices (Keown, 2005).
Moral choices become illuminated through an emphasis on the five precepts.
Precepts
Ethical requirements outlined in Buddhism are in the form of five precepts or general
duties: (a) refraining from harming living creatures, (b) refraining from taking what has not
been given, (c) refraining from over indulging in sensuality and from sexual immorality, (d)
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refraining from speaking falsely, and (e) refraining from taking intoxicants (Keown, 2005;
Saddhatissa, 1970).
Moral discipline consists of observance of the moral precepts (moral guidelines laid
down by the Buddha) and cultivation of virtuous acts, which entails the accumulation of the
good qualities necessary to attain nirvana, which is the transcending of unpleasant realms
(Harvey, 2000).
Virtues
The breadth of virtues in Buddhism can be derived from three fundamental virtues:
non-attachment, benevolence, and understanding (Keown, 2005). These are the polar
opposites to the evil roots of greed, hatred, and delusion. Non-attachment consists of the
absence of selfishness and egoistic desire and designating privileged status to one’s own
needs. Benevolence entails an emphasis of goodwill to all others. Understanding, in
accordance to Buddhist thought, requires knowledge of the Four Noble Truths.
In addition to the three foundational virtues is the central virtue of compassion, which
the Dalai Lama maintains is the most important moral quality (McCarthy, 2001). Although
compassion is important in all Buddhist schools, substantial emphasis has been placed on this
virtue in the Mahāyāna discipline (Keown, 2005), where a bodhisattva, “one who has entered
on the path of enlightenment and, motivated by compassion, has vowed to help other sentient
beings realize enlightenment prior to becoming a [B]uddha” (Wei-hsun Fu & Wawrytko,
1991, p. 409). Moreover, through compassion a bodhisattva commits to relinquishing
suffering in all. A more in-depth discussion on compassion is included following
philosophical classifications of Buddhist ethics.
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To date there is no agreed upon methodology for Eastern and Western philosophical
comparisons in relation to ethics, yet attempts have been made to gain theoretical
understanding (Keown, 1996, 2005; Prebish, 2001). Discussion of Buddhism being related to
teleological, deontological, or existentialist philosophies is provided.
Teleology
Within the realm of teleological classification, utilitarian and virtue-based assessment
is warranted. Examination of how Buddhist ethical postulates fit in accordance to each is
provided.
Utilitarianism. Buddhist ethics maintains close resemblance to utilitarianism since, in
accordance with ends focused assessment, the doctrine of karma in Buddhism “teaches that
there is a close relationship between good deeds and future happiness” (Keown, 2005, p. 26).
Thus, consideration of good consequences is emphasized, and Buddhism has often been
associated with Western consequentialism on the following grounds:
(1) Buddhism defines the good hedonically in terms of worldly well-being; (2) the
Buddhist agent acts in such a way as to ensure her or his own well-being in future
lives (action is motivated by the desire for personal happiness); and (3) the Buddhist
criterion of right action is conduciveness to increased happiness (Keown, 1996, p.
330).
Virtue ethics. Buddhist ethics appears to have substantial resemblance to virtue-based
ethics (Keown, 1996, 2005; McCarthy, 2001; Veleq de Cea, 2004). Essentially, “Buddhism is
first and foremost a path of self-transformation that seeks the elimination of negative states
(vices) and their replacement by positive or wholesome ones (virtues)” (Keown, 2005, p. 25).
Thus a salient emphasis is placed on being a moral person. Veleq de Cea, (2004) postulates a
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system of Buddhist ethics consisting of instrumental actions (leading to conditions favorable
for nirvanic virtues) in accordance with teleological actions (where actual nirvanic virtues are
displayed) thus the goal of cessation of suffering is maintained. Also in accordance to virtuebased ethics is altruistic conduct which consists of directing moral action for the benefit of
others (Harvey, 2000).
Deontology
Deontology places a substantial emphasis on rule following (Hadjistavropoulos &
Malloy, 2000). Buddhism has elements which are deontological in nature through placing
emphasis on “rules and precepts that approach the status of moral absolutes” (Keown, 2005,
p. 26). Precepts are voluntarily assumed. However, the deontological obligation to live a
moral life is emphasized for all in Buddhism.
Existentialism
Buddhism appears to have existential attributes within its philosophical repertoire.
Buddhism underscores the nature of free will (Keown, 2005) which is indicative of
existentialist thought. Furthermore, according to existentialism “all actions may influence all
individuals, all of society, or all of humanity” (Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy, 2000, p. 106). In
relation to this central tenet there seems to be points of convergence and divergence.
Mahāyāna appears to relate to the phenomenological criteria of interconnectedness. Through
the boddisattva ideal there seems to be convergence with existential thought since emphasis
is placed on saving all beings (Chappell, 2001) and not seeking enlightened existence for
themselves alone (Wei-hsun Fu & Wawrytko, 1991). Moreover, it is postulated that all
phenomena share the attribute of emptiness (Wei-hsun Fu & Wawrytko, 1991, p. 362)
revealing the union of everything. On ontological grounds, the nondualistic nature of
17
Mahāyāna postulates that mind is actually one with the entire universe (Wei-hsun Fu &
Wawrytko, 1991); a belief which is described to be “possible if the core of my own egoconsciousness is not self-existing but hollow, because groundless: If consciousness is not
‘inside,’ there is no outside” (p. 304). Epstein (1999) outlines that Buddhism teaches that “we
are not so much isolated individuals as we are overlapping environments” (p. 135). A point
of divergence, however, should also be considered, as in Buddhism there is still the
teleological dimension where focus is placed on personal actualization and self-realization
(Keown, 1996). Thus Buddhism contains elements indicative of egotism and altruism
(Keown, 2005).
The philosophical schools of thought of teleology, deontology, and existentialism
have been discussed in relation to ethical theory prevalent in Western and Buddhist ethics. In
addition, philosophical and theoretical assessment of the CPA code was presented, all of
which provides a common ground for comparison between Western and Buddhist modes of
ethical meaning making which, after further analysis, may result in insight that can be
extended from the meta-theoretical level to the domain of practical application. Prior to the
comparative analysis a discussion of procedures is presented.
18
Procedures
A research strategy requires identification of preliminary sources, identification of
primary search journals, and accessing personal networks (Mertens, 1998). Furthermore,
ethical research entails consideration of research paradigms, researcher bias, and potential
stakeholders, in conjunction with a full account of methodology. Methodology is discussed
which describes the literature review process. To follow will be an account of researcher
reflexivity, which, in accordance to emancipatory research frameworks, addresses personal
bias and world view.
Attempts to contribute to primary research in any topic of interest usually involves
the initial undertaking of conducting a literature review (Mertens, 1998). The objective of a
review of the literature is to explain what is understood about a topic and to support the
rationale of the research (Mertens, 1998). This project includes a review of the central
theoretical and philosophical foundational themes of Buddhism, Mahāyāna school in
particular, along with Western philosophy and the CPA code of ethics for psychologists. The
theoretical review entails consideration of different world views and provides a foundation
for the comparison and thus the foundation for merging of paradigms.
Methodology for Review of the Literature
Preliminary sources that were targeted consisted of various databases accessed
through the University of Calgary library and the University of Alberta NEOS consortium
catalogue. Electronic databases accessed were PsychINFO, Psychological and Behavioral
Sciences, Academic Search Premier, and JSTOR Journals. Google Scholar was accessed for
review of the Journal of Buddhist Ethics for relevant articles to the topic of interest. Key
words and phrases searched for were: Buddhist ethics, Western ethics, code of ethics, ethics
19
in psychology, Mahāyāna Buddhism, compassion, and Canadian code of ethics. The
“Ancestry approach” (Mertens, 1998, p. 41) was incorporated throughout the literature search
process. The ancestry approach entails examination of reference lists found at the end of
applicable books or journal articles. Diverse articles were chosen including primary research,
literature reviews, and research from the three dominant research paradigms: positivism/
postpositivism, interpretive/ constructivism, and emancipatory world views. Journals
included range from an empirical/ science orientation to a philosophical/ religion orientation
with the intent of a balance with world view inclusion. Articles were excluded from this
project if the emphasis was solely on medical ethics and unrelated to the practice of
psychology or psychotherapy. The only exception to this was the inclusion of a journal on
nursing research (Advances in Nursing Science), which was highly relevant during discussion
on ethics in a multicultural context. An attempt was made to consider Buddhist literature
relating to the Mahāyāna discipline exclusively. However, many constructs presented are
relevant to Buddhism as a whole. Thus sources were included which provide a synopsis of
literature from various schools of thought in Buddhist studies which bore relevance.
Research Collaboration
Peer networking was conducted and consisted of direct collaboration with the project
supervisor, a specialist in ethics in psychology, and email correspondence with an academic
professor specialising in Buddhist philosophy from the University of Calgary. Peer
networking assisted in ensuring a balance of perspectives were represented and maintained.
Research Reflexivity
Informal self-assessment of researcher bias, worldview, and personal and
professional investments into the project require consideration. Research self-assessment is
20
essential as “[a] researcher’s theoretical orientation has implications for every decision made
in the research process, including the choice of method” (Mertens, 1998, p. 3).
Throughout graduate training I noticed a shift in thinking as academic exposure
changed from the science of psychology during initial undergraduate training towards
philosophical considerations in psychology in my graduate years. This shift provided impetus
to re-examine my own values, sense of culture, and world view. A strong awareness of
suffering in the world, causes of suffering within my own sphere of experience, and Eurocentric upbringing, have resulted in a strong desire to learn more about integration and
unified interconnectedness with others. Interest in universal values stems out of profound
awareness of the desire and inclination towards the state of happiness in everyone.
A change in thinking was not exclusive to the domain of academic pursuits and also
entailed openness in the spiritual domain. My interest and understanding about the human
experience has gravitated towards a Buddhist perspective from early childhood exposure to
Western Catholicism. Martial arts has played a valuable role in my life and resulted in
experience with a discipline which emphasizes connection between mind, body, and spirit.
Interest in Buddhism resulted in a retreat to a Monastery during undergraduate years and
provided exposure to meditation first hand. Meditation has been an ongoing personal practice
ever since.
Professional endeavours can not be considered exclusive from world view
orientation. I gravitate towards an emancipatory world view in my professional life and
actively take on an advocacy role for clients. I find it challenging to observe power
hierarchies and, often affiliated, an overarching normative dominance that ensues. Moreover,
I have found that economic gain, maintenance of power, and an overemphasis on
21
individualistic orientation has resulted in an atmosphere not supportive of practitioners and
clients. Client care and an other orientation is the essence of the human care industry. I am
fortunate to be affiliated with a university offering graduate education where self-reflexivity
is not only accepted but encouraged throughout the learning process.
In light of the proposed research methodology a procedural foundation exists for the
central comparison for this project. Comparative analysis is now provided.
22
Comparative Assessment
Comparison between Western and Buddhist philosophy as it relates to ethics will be
oriented in a top-down manner, whereby worldview influences that guide ontological and
epistemological processes of inquiry are considered first. A detailed consideration of
precipitating, salient constructs essential to both Western and Buddhist ethical systems will
follow. Results of the comparative assessment will address the three research goals: 1) To
compare ethical principles (Respect for the Dignity of Persons and Responsibility to Society)
in the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists (2000) with Eastern Buddhist philosophical
frameworks on ethics, 2) to explore the relevance of compassion as a vehicle for aspirational
ethics, and 3) to examine whether common humanity seems to supersede cultural differences
when considering universal declaration of shared values.
A worldview “is essentially a set of assumptions about how human beings and the
world in which we live function” (Arthur & Collins, 2006, p. 65). An accumulation of
objective and subjective interpretations generated from experiential, perceptual awareness of
the world are derived in a worldview which then offers guidance for further interpretation
and categorization of experience. Worldviews are not exclusive to assumptions and biases
and are often “…presumed as truths and are rarely the focus of personal or collective
evaluation” (p. 65). The positivism/ post-positivism, interpretive/ constructivist, and
emancipatory worldviews are discussed from the Western and Buddhist perspectives in
relation to ethics, followed by discussion of key constructs which are used for further
comparison.
Philosophical paradigms or worldviews present ways of viewing the world that
facilitate thinking and action (Mertens, 1998). The positivist/postpositivist,
23
interpretive/constructivist, and emancipatory paradigms are explored in relation to Buddhist
philosophy and the CPA code.
Western and Buddhist Worldview Assessment
Positivism/ Post-positivist Paradigm
Philosophical assumptions underlying the positivism/ post-positivism paradigm are
that “the social world can be studied in the same way as the natural world, that there is a
method for studying the social world that is value-free, and that explanations of a causal
nature can be provided (Mertens, 1998, p. 7). Ontological formulations of the world and
human nature according to post-positivism are in accordance to one prevalent reality
(Mertens, 1998).
In Western academia empiricism and scientific inquiry represents a dominant
influential epistemological force. Kendler (1993) postulates that “psychology and ethics are
socially created concepts incapable of being equated to a limited set of circumscribed
observational events” (p. 1046). Kendler (1999) also proposes that “…empirical evidence
can validate factual truth but not moral truth” (p. 829), thus indicating that empirical findings
are unreliable for deriving and guiding human values. Blickle (2004) maintains the
perspective that there is a value base in psychology “…including concepts such as rationality,
empirical support for assertions, impartiality, openness to revisions, and the
acknowledgement of limits to one’s own competence” (p. 274). An empirical, post-positive
vantage-point with roots in traditional Western-European views has contributed substantially
to the practice of psychology (Arthur & Collins, 2006). Catano (1994) proposes that “…the
[Canadian] Code of Ethics must become part of the shared background of scientific activity”
24
(Forging a Single System, ¶ 1). Prior to examination of alternate worldviews consideration of
the post-positivist mindset in Buddhist philosophy requires consideration.
In review, post-positivism places emphasis on empirical methods of inquiry into
phenomena in addition to the belief in one objective reality (Mertens, 1998). The closest
Buddhism appears to come to this paradigm is the attention placed on moral teachings which
“constitute the subject matter or raw data of ethics” (Keown, 2005, p. 27). Inquiry under this
paradigm is further complicated due to the fact that “[c]ontemporary Buddhist groups rarely
publish position papers and the great thinkers of the past left no legacy in the form of
treatises on ethics” (p. 27). The verbal instruction and passing on of teachings and
experiences appears to be more salient contributors of ethical evaluation than reliance on
empirical external data in Buddhist thought.
Interpretive/ Constructivist Paradigm
The central tenet of the interpretive/ constructivist worldview is that “reality is
socially constructed” (Mertens, 1998, p. 11) and values are not mutually exclusive to
research and derived knowledge. A further assumption to constructivist thought is that
humans construct knowledge as opposed to finding and discovering it (Mertens, 1998).
Therapeutic practice of psychology has been described as a linguistic process where
therapeutic problems are not solely defined as problems in an objective reality, but may be
defined as problems via members of the involved system (Fong & Lease, 1994). The creative
power of dialogue in contributing to the CPA code of ethics has been outlined by Pettifor et
al. (2005), where open consultation, reflection, and collaboration of ideas have been pivotal
processes. The proposed purposes of the CPA code of ethics, to establish the identity and
credibility of the profession of psychology, to act as a support and guide to individual
25
professionals, and to help meet the responsibilities of being a profession (Pettifor, et al.,
2005), may be described as having roots in constructivist insight, where collaboration, selfreflection, and dialogue are central reflexive processes in constructing moral agents in the
profession. In line with the constructivist belief in multiple realities is the potential for
differential interpretation of guiding ethical principles. It has been presented that
psychologists need more than a code of ethics for guidance despite its relevance (Pettifor,
2001; Rave & Larsen, 1995).
Buddhism appears to be interpretive/ constructivist in nature as there is the belief that
there is a nonsubstantive essence of reality, otherwise known as absolute nothingness, which
goes beyond the factual level (Wei-hsun Fu & Wawrytko, 1991).
In constructivist thought knowledge is considered to be a construct, or construction, created
by the mind (Fox, 2001). In line with constructivism and in accordance with Buddhist
viewpoints, meditation has been theoretically and philosophically conceptualized to
complement constructions of our reality (Delmonte, 1987). Byrom (1976), as cited in Corsini
& Wedding (2000), maintained that teaching by the Buddha began with outlining:
We are what we think
All that we are arises with our thoughts
With our thoughts we make the world…
It is good to control them,
And to master them brings happiness. (p. 413)
Hallisey & Hansen (1996) propose that moral life is enabled by narrative and that
Theravādin commentators have recognized substantial nature of Buddhist narratives with
affiliated work-like elements. “[T]hrough narrative we are able to imagine ourselves in the
26
place of another” (p. 314). Thus through passage of story in conjunction with affiliated
principles (more structured elements) of Dharma teachings, Buddhism reveals methodology
for constructing a moral being in accordance to the interpretive/ constructivist paradigm.
Interpretation of ethical codes, defining ethical principles, and ethical decision
making may be related to one’s position in culture, in particular, one’s position in relation to
power (Rave & Larsen, 1995). Differential power and social construction has been
considered by the emancipatory paradigm.
Emancipatory Paradigm
The emancipatory paradigm “directly address[es] the politics in [psychological]
research by confronting social oppression at whatever levels it occurs” (Mertens, 1998, p.
15). There has been disagreement on whether Western psychologists have a responsibility
towards the promotion of social justice and contributing to societal change (Pettifor, 2004).
Stevens & Wedding (2004) indicate that international psychology maintains a commitment to
social justice based on its definition. Toporek, Gerstein, Foaad, Roysircar, & Israel (2006)
propose that social justice is a central identifying feature of counselling psychology.
Feminist theory has largely contributed to emancipatory thought (Mertens, 1998). The
Feminist Therapy Code of Ethics (1999) maintains that “the personal is political” (¶ 2).
Moreover, the code outlines the following central tenets:
A belief in the equal worth of all human beings, a recognition that each individual’s
personal experiences and situations are reflective of and an influence on society’s
institionalized attitudes and values, and a commitment to political and social change
that equalizes power among people. (¶ 2)
27
Feminist ethics entail consideration that personal identity and values are inextricably
connected with professional values and ethics (Pipes et al., 2005). In accordance with
emancipatory ontology multiple realities are influenced by social, political, cultural,
economic, ethnic, gender, and disability values (Mertens, 1998). The CPA code of ethics
outlines that “…social structures and policies that have beneficial purposes are defined as
those that more readily support and reflect respect for the dignity of persons, responsible
caring, integrity in relationships, and responsibility to society” (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001, p.
87). An emancipatory focus is indicated in the CPA code of ethics through acknowledging
the larger social system when considering ethical care and concern towards individuals and
society at large.
The emancipatory paradigm governing modes of phenomenological inquiry maintains
the ontological stance that multiple realities are shaped by cultural and social processes, and
advocates for a social action agenda in accordance with culturally infused ethical awareness
(Arthur & Collins, 2006; Mertens, 1998).
Evolving from traditional Buddhist ethics is the emergence of a movement known as
engaged Buddhism (Keown, 2005; Queen, 2000). Engaged Buddhism, founded by Thich
Nhat Hanh, “focuses on larger questions of public policy such as social justice, poverty,
politics, and the environment” (Keown, 2005, p. 32). Engaged Buddhism emphasizes
awareness in daily life, social service, and social activism as central ideas for consideration,
and is a philosophical construct which applies to human rights issues.
Queen (2000), a modern philosopher on engaged Buddhism proposed four styles of
Buddhist ethics: (a) The ethics of discipline, (b) the ethics of virtue, (c) the ethics of altruism,
and (d) the ethics of engagement. The ethics of discipline reveal that conduct caused by
28
mental impurities (greed, hatred, and delusion) may be combatted by observing the precepts
or moral guidelines (Keown, 2005). The ethics of virtue entail relationship coming to the
forefront and constructs, such as compassion, kindness, sympathetic joy, and equanimity,
being salient themes. The ethics of altruism entail service to others as the predominant
consideration. Ethics of engagement entail consideration of the aforementioned three ethical
prescriptions directed towards concern for a better society. Thus it is clear that the engaged
Buddhism movement has an active role in social advocacy with an affiliated role in guiding
ethical commentary on the moral social process.
Assessment of paradigms reveals that in Western psychology and ethics philosophy a
balance seems to exist across all three paradigms, positivism/ postpositivism, interpretive
constructivism, and emancipatory, in relation to ethics, as each paradigm holds value in
traditional and present zeitgeists. This is apparent when considering the prevalent value of
quantitative methods of inquiry represented in the medical model at one end of the spectrum,
with value towards social justice and equality displayed at the other end representing the
sociopolitical model. Catano (1994) advocates for a balanced approach when considering
facts and theory, and norms, values, and principles maintaining that “The Code of Ethics
should be seen as the mechanism which serves to bridge the realms of scientific and practical
discourse in psychology” (Moral Phenomena, ¶ 1) when deriving new knowledge. In framing
Buddhist views in the Western paradigms presented there appears to be a stronger correlation
between Buddhist ethical philosophy with interpretive/ constructivist and emancipatory
worldviews, yet influence from all three paradigms exist. The practice of meditation to
cultivate right thought, action, speech, livelihood, view, resolve, effort, and mindfulness
entails focus on mental events; a process which can be considered both objective and
29
subjective in nature. Moreover, narrative practice and social activism are emphasized in
ethical teaching and practice.
The review has entailed examination of Buddhist ethics philosophy and the CPA code
of ethics across the spectrum of Western philosophical and worldview classification. A
review of the literature on Buddhist ethics reveals constructs worthy of further elaboration
which may be comparable with elements of the CPA code of ethics. Key constructs are now
considered.
Discussion and Comparison of Key Constructs
Central to Buddhist philosophy and practice are the constructs of compassion and
discipline of mind, both of which are central to and essential for the cessation of suffering in
self and others. The constructs of compassion, discipline of mind, and suffering are pivotal to
the Buddhist ethical practice of virtuous being and appear to have Western correlates as
implicit or explicit themes in the CPA code of ethics.
Compassion
In Buddhism compassion is indicative of “active sympathy, [and] gentle affection”
(Eynde, 2004, ¶ 3). Glaser (2005) postulates that compassion “is the basis of connection,
intimacy, openness, kindness, hospitality, and joy. It is an expression of human freedom,
flowing from a sound intuition of the unity of life and all living things” (p. 11). In Mahāyāna
Buddhism the bodhisattva reflects the quintessence of compassion where attentiveness to the
needs of others is strongly emphasized (Keown, 2005). Glaser (2005) maintains that “the
seeds of compassion are found in empathy, or the ability to enter into and know, at least in
part, the suffering of another” (p. 42). The foundations of compassion and impediments to
compassion are discussed.
30
Foundation of Compassion
An important precursor to compassion in Buddhist philosophy is awareness of the
concept of interdependent arising which postulates that “all psychological and physical
phenomena constituting individual existence are interdependent and mutually condition each
other or that they stand in a relationship that can be in terms of simultaneity as well as
succession in time” (Eynde, 2004, ¶ 3). The tenet of interdependent arising calls into question
the central focus of self in Western psychology since, in Buddhism, all existence is believed
to be interdependent with conditioned creation of experiences that go against an exclusive
permanent self structure. Glaser (2005) postulates that “compassion frees us from the pain of
our misguided egocentric strivings” (p. 69). The implication of interdependent arising is that
all others need to fall within the realm of our care and concern. Mahāyāna, also referred to as
Great Vehicle, placing a strong emphasis on others maintains that “we can never be
completely free as long as others to whom we are inextricably linked suffer” (Glaser, 2005,
p. 15). Hershock (2000) maintains the following regarding a Buddhist view of an
interdependent world:
It is a world for which we are intimately responsible, which already expresses
or evidences our patterns of valuation, and to which we may always and
creatively contribute. In such a world, it is not possible in any nontrivial sense
to see ourselves as autonomously existing individuals. We are, and have
always been, given-together. And thus, our most basic right is not ‘to be let
alone’ but rather to see the exact nature of our always shared responsibility
and to realize the greatest virtuosity possible in responding to our situation as
needed. (p. 11)
31
Thus reflection on the construct of interdependent arising awakens a mindset that shifts away
from a mutually exclusive existence where neglect or habituation to the conditions of others
can occur and adopts a view of reality of interconnected being. Genuine compassion entails
engaging in wise action for the benefit of others, which is exclusive to the promotion of selfinterest. Thus the concept of no-self is central to the Buddhist mindset of altruistic
compassion which, when achieved or realized, contributes to the framework for ethical
action.
The construct of compassion has not been a principle focus in psychological work in
the West (Glaser, 2005; Ladner, 2004), which may be due to the fact that it falls outside the
realm of the empirical mode of inquiry. Western emphasis on research methodology has
stood the test of time and, consequentially, presents one of the more dominant modes of
understanding, which may result in this epistemological force holding the most credible truth.
It is important to note that “the belief in scientific empiricism and empirically supported
interventions has the potential to exclude the use of culturally appropriate humanistic and
spiritual healing experiences” (Pettifor, 2001, p. 30). Ladner (2004) postulates that “it is not
the behavior but the state of mind motivating the behavior that determines the presence or
absence of compassion” (p. 13). Thus compassion is the precursor to ethical behavior, which
is outside the realm of quantification or measurability, and appears to be more reflective of
authentic matters of the heart.
The need for protection from harm underscores the necessity for and focus on
individual human rights, which in essence, entails matters of the heart through care and
concern for the well being of others. The CPA code of ethics is attentive to individual
autonomy through Respect for the Dignity of Persons and affiliated values of non32
discrimination, fair treatment and due process, freedom of consent, protection for vulnerable
persons, privacy, and confidentiality (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001). Honouring individual
autonomy and equality of human rights is of pivotal importance to ethical practice and
underscores the care and concern which bares resemblance to the construct of compassion.
The CPA code includes the cultivation of community through adherence and attentiveness to
the needs of society. The principle Responsibility to Society emphasizes importance of
working in partnership with others being open to external influence, in addition to selfreflexivity, to promote the welfare of all (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001). Thus an explicit element
of interdependence is observed.
On epistemological grounds there appears to be a salient point of convergence
between the Buddhist view of compassion and the CPA code’s adherence to responsible
caring and respect towards society. Assessment of compassion in Buddhism and the CPA
code of ethics reveals the common theme of the virtue benevolence. Benevolence, as defined
in The Oxford Dictionary, Pollard (1994), means “wishing to do good to others” (p. 72).
Keown (2005) describes benevolence to mean “an attitude of goodwill to all living creatures”
(p. 13). Nussbaum, as cited in Eynde (2004), maintains that compassion and benevolent
action are connected. The overarching intention to assist others is a salient component of
compassion and is valued considerably by both Eastern and Western philosophy, and
throughout the practice of ethics.
A discussion on compassion would be incomplete without mention of impediments to
this construct. Impediments according to Eastern and Western thought are considered.
Impediments to Compassion
33
In Buddhism, impediments to compassion are the emotional states of desire, hatred,
aggression, and ignorance which all promote the experience of suffering (Eynde, 2004).
Diminishing the impediment states is of the utmost importance which becomes apparent
when reflecting on our interdependent or conditioned arising since “…our mutual
dependency indicates that whatever can be done to reduce suffering in the world should be
done” (Compassion and Politics, ¶ 6). Moreover, Emotional intelligence, coupled with
wisdom and sound reasoning, are essential for compassion (Glaser, 2005; Ladner, 2004).
Thus in Buddhist thought, “the heart is not an adjunct to thinking. It is ‘a direct presence that
allows a complete attunement with reality’” (Glaser, 2005, p. 17). Neglecting emotional
reasoning with cognitive analysis in ethical problem solving hinders the cultivation of
compassionate responding.
In Western philosophy individuation and an emphasis on autonomous thinking rooted
in postpositivism provides a clear objective distinction between self and other. A Western
perspective when considering human rights has “…focused on establishing the minimum
conditions of our secure and dignified coexistence while preserving a clear demarcation
between the public and private spheres” (Hershock, 2000, p. 9). An individualistic mindset,
coupled with a strong value towards objectivism, runs the risk of segregating emotional
experience from reason based assessment. Moreover, segregating cognitive analysis and
affective domains when assessing practical case studies may result in “…becoming primarily
abstract thought puzzles to be analyzed according to specified rules” (Jordan & Meara, 1990,
p. 108), which may minimize capacity for compassion as caregivers.
Goal driven self-achievement and professional recognition have affiliated status and
power: a frame of reference which is mainly ego based and self-serving and a possible
34
detriment to pure focus on the wellbeing of others. It should be noted that power and
privilege have a segregating element in any culture, society, or political system and are
equally a concern in Eastern and Western societies. Arthur and Collins (2006) outlined that
power does not always have a detrimental influence; “it is the differential distribution of
power across various groups in society that leads to systemic forms of oppression and a sense
of disempowerment among members of non-dominant populations (p. 83).
Suffering
The construct of suffering in Buddhism is one of the four noble truths; existence is
suffering (Keown, 2005; Walsh-Frank, 1996). The source of suffering is clinging and
craving, which is the second noble truth in Buddhism (Keown, 2005). Clinging to illusionary
views of self and thought patterns, as well as material things to derive happiness, produces
the state of suffering according in Buddhist thinking. Furthermore, craving emotional states
and/or material possessions for ownership are methods to substantiate a sense of permanent
self which is believed to be the root of happiness. This view of the world in Buddhism is
indicative of the absence of wisdom. Glaser (2005) maintains that in Buddhism a lack of
wisdom or ignorance has the following repercussions:
Ignorance creates the identification with me and mine. It, in turn, depends upon an
illusion of separateness and a belief in inherent self-existence. However, because
ignorance depends upon illusion, it is by nature weaker than the true reality that we
and all phenomena do not exist absolutely and independently, but as subtly
interconnected processes. (p. 45)
In Mahāyāna Buddhism suffering is of pivotal importance as it is a universal state and
“…those who understand its source are virtually mandated to help others” (Walsh-Frank,
35
1996, Conclusion, ¶ 3), hence the importance and honour affiliated with bodhisattva. “A
bodhisattva is one who acts with courage and bravery to accomplish full awakening for the
benefit of all beings” (Glaser, 2005, p. 19). In line with bodhisattva thinking, it is believed
that through “perceiving the interminable pain and sorrow of other living beings who are,
like us, caught in a web of suffering, we become filled with a burning impulse to free them”
(p. 19). According to Buddhism, inducing a compassionate focus that is other-centered to
minimize suffering is indicative of the height of ethical being.
Western psychology is vast and diverse and an assessment of theoretical assessment
of suffering from the multitude of schools of thought would be beyond the scope of this
paper. To understand suffering from the perspective of Western philosophy in a
comprehensive manner worldview classification is required. Suffering can be considered
from the perspectives of postpositivist, interpretive / constructivist, and emancipatory
worldviews. Such classification is required since suffering does not appear to exist as an
exclusive stand-alone construct in the practice of clinical psychology (Miller, 2005).
Postpositivist paradigm. Postpositivism is affiliated with the medical model when
considering the overarching emphasis on science and empiricism. From this viewpoint
individuals are thought to be “victims of disease” (Brickman et al., 1982, p. 372). Miller
(2005) postulates that the medicalization (p. 305) of emotional pain and suffering are
“…redefined as disorders of the individual produced by the brain, psyche, or environment,
[whereby] the meaning of human suffering is fundamentally altered” (p. 305). Suffering, as a
human emotion, is accounted for in terms of empirical categorization of cognitive, biological,
or sociological explanations (Miller, 2005), when considering the medical modal and
objectivism as presented in the postpositivist paradigm.
36
Interpretive/ constructivist paradigm. In constructivism multiple realities are
postulated to exist (Mertens, 1998). In constructivist psychology a de-pathologizing
perspective is emphasized to allow for creation of new meanings which encourage growth
and change (Griffin & Vinson, 1999). A non-pathologizing view sees client problems as
developmental challenges that occur simultaneously with moments of emotional
disequilibrium (Griffin & Vinson, 1999). From this perspective suffering may be viewed as a
construction which no longer serves the individual and, therefore, requires reframing to
minimize or reduce the emotional discomfort. In honouring multiple realities, the
constructivist frame of reference values the subjective portrayal of the suffering experience
which would be considered as unique to the individual and the psychologist would attempt to
gain insight into the nature of the individuals’ view of reality.
Emancipatory paradigm. This worldview addresses the impact of the larger social
system when considering suffering (Arthur & Collins, 2006). In accordance with this
worldview suffering may not be central to the individual, but the result of systemic barriers
that impose restrictions on individuals. The emancipatory worldview has often been affiliated
with the feminist ethics (Arthur & Collins, 2006). “Feminist ethical principles support
experiential learning and transformative learning” (Pettifor et al., 2002, p. 261), thus the
subjective internal journey of the individual is honoured. Suffering from this mindset would
likely entail learning the subjective experiences of the individual in accordance with social
dynamics and ethical responsibility.
A Western philosophical view of suffering, resulting from the aforementioned
paradigms, appears to cover a full spectrum from an objective, diagnostic, and largely
37
cognitive appraisal, to one where a multitude of subjective accounts are considered from the
vantage point of the individual and from a collective society.
The CPA code of ethics consists of a prescriptive and aspirational stance towards
ensuring minimization of harm and suffering through emphasis placed on respect and
responsibility. In this context care for individuals, society, and the profession of psychology
are advocated. The principle of responsibility to society reflects a balanced and inclusive
approach to psychological intervention and practice where minimizing suffering is honoured
from the various worldviews. The CPA code of ethics (Sincair & Pettifor, 2001) postulates
that:
Freedom of enquiry and debate (including scientific and academic freedom) is a
foundation of psychological education, science, and practice. In the context of
society, the above expectations imply that psychologists will exercise this freedom
through the use of activities and methods that are consistent with ethical
requirements. (p. 87)
The cultivation of compassion and minimizing of suffering in self and others requires
competent skill development and virtuous being in both Buddhism and the CPA code of
ethics. The ability to maintain an other focus, act with benevolence, and genuinely identify
with the suffering of others induces a call to helping professionals which is explicitly
identified in Buddhist teachings and in the CPA code of ethics. Although suffering has
different epistemological roots in Buddhism when compared to Western philosophy and the
CPA code of ethics, the common theme of virtuous intent to reduce suffering in others, and
in the world, is apparent in both. Compassion, and its salient other orientation, is a construct
worthy of cultivation in both Buddhism and Western practice of psychology. Compassion is
38
a plausible construct worthy of consideration in the global arena of psychological practice.
The cultivation of compassion falls under the umbrella of the construct of discipline and
competency skill development, which is now discussed.
Discipline
The construct of discipline is emphasized throughout Mahāyāna Buddhism, as it is a
central to in order to cultivate the state of mind necessary for the minimization of suffering
and for cultivation of compassionate care. Adherence to the noble eightfold path: (a) right
view, (b) right resolve, (c) right speech, (d) right action, (e) right livelihood, (f) right effort,
(g) right mindfulness, (h) right meditation and precepts: (Keown, 2005) requires intention to
live virtuously. Cultivation of insight, wisdom, and virtuosity required to live this path is
affiliated with the practice of meditation which entails discipline. There is a diversity of
styles of meditation, all with different aims and intentions. A brief overview of meditation
and the practice of mindfulness will be considered as it is the vehicle to compassionate being
and is central to Buddhism.
Meditation and mindfulness. Many forms and styles of meditation have been
constructed and passed on through humanity’s spiritual traditions (Bogart, 1991). The vast
majority of styles have a central premise, which focuses on the withdrawal of attention from
the outer world and from typical patterns of perception, with an accompanying experience of
inner awareness. Meditation denotes self-experience, self-realization, and from Buddhist
traditions, it is a practice that aims to achieve the ultimate truth and view of reality (PerezDe-Albeniz, 2000). The process of meditation has been described as “…the attainment of a
deeply restful yet fully alert state practiced as a self-regulatory approach to stress reduction
and emotion management” (Murata et al., 2004, p. 189). Meditation on Buddhism’s central
39
virtues, non-attachment, benevolence, and understanding assists with the cultivation of
virtuous being (Keown, 2005). Kabat-Zinn (1993) maintains that mindfulness targets a
person’s attitude resulting in a general sense of well-being through the cultivation of wisdom.
Wisdom and greater awareness is developed through mindfulness practice, which assists
people “…live each moment of their lives –even the painful ones –as fully as possible
(Kabat-Zinn, 1993, p. 260).
Glaser (2005) discusses the mindful and meditative practice of lojong, which is a
form of mind training that can assist in cultivating equanimity. Equanimity, as defined by
The Oxford Dictionary, Pollard (1994), is “calmness of mind or temper” (p. 269). Glaser
maintains that equanimity is “…not a necessary constituent of the compassion we ordinarily
feel” (p. 133), as typical compassion we are familiar with can be rather limited by being
reserved for a select few. Furthermore, equanimity provides a stable emotional foundation
from which to properly cultivate compassion. Glaser (2005) outlines the three stages of
equanimity development in accordance to lojong mindfulness practice, which are: (a)
motivational equanimity, where “we deeply wish for all beings-without exception-to have
happiness and be free of suffering” (p. 133); (b) dissolving projections, which focuses on
“dissolving projections of friends, enemies, and neutral persons by investigating and seeing
through our attachment, anger, and indifference; and (c) building on the previous two,
through reflection on similarity to others and “realize that all beings are, in this deepest
sense, like ourselves, we come to see our equality with them, and we arouse a passionate
commitment to work for the benefit of all others” (p. 133).
A full account of meditation and mindfulness training is beyond the scope of this
paper, yet it is important to emphasize that both are central disciplines for cultivation of
40
attention, awareness, and virtuous being. In Buddhist thinking, “the person who can control
attention can therefore control and cultivate specific [virtuous] emotions and motives”
(Corsini & Wedding, 2000).
In Western psychology, the construct of discipline is interwoven throughout ethical
training and practice. The standards indicated in the CPA code of ethics “range from minimal
behavioral expectations to more idealized [aspirational], but achievable, attitudes and
behaviours” (Pettifor, 1996). Discipline rooted in ethical training and in the CPA code of
ethics are discussed.
Pettifor et al. (2002) postulate that the literature on teaching ethics to psychologists
entails the following perspectives: (a) the “need to know the rules and prescriptions on what
is considered right and wrong behavior in order to behave correctly and to defend themselves
against allegations of misconduct” (p. 262), and (b) the “need to be able to identify dilemmas
and to use ethical decision-making steps and critical thinking in order to apply moral
principles to resolve these dilemmas” (p. 262). According to Pettifor et al. (2002) “the
learning of ethics implies that the learners are familiar with the information obtained and that
they are able to integrate all the learning components into effective decision-making through
a process of critical reflection and personal experience” (p. 262). A commitment towards
competency skill development, self-assessment, and engaging in reflexive thinking is critical
for learning and practice of ethics in Western psychology. The CPA code of ethics decision
making steps promote critical thought and problem-solving by intent (Pettifor et al., 2002),
which allow for an aspirational focus. Pettifor et al. (2002) maintains that a variety of
strategies for learning in ethics training, experiential, interactive, problem-based, case study
analysis, and vignette review, are beneficial. Moreover, “individuals may be capable of using
41
different learning styles as long as they facilitate an integration of knowledge, skills, and selfawareness” (p. 267). In Western psychology, in line with competence and cognitive
complexity skill development required for a working aptitude for application of the CPA
code of ethics, it appears knowledge and skill application is more readily measurable
(Fuentes et al., 2005); whereas “…values and attitudes may be more difficult to assess as
they are not created in graduate school and are not limited to professional spheres of activity”
(p. 365).
Consideration of the role of discipline in Buddhism and Western psychology has
resulted in the salient construct of reflexivity as a common theme interwoven through both
perspectives. Self-reflexivity is the process of “…stepping back from what is known, what is
being said, and what can be learned several times throughout the process, paying close
attention to similarities, differences, anomalies, and personal reactions” (Arthur & Collins,
2006, p. 287). A commitment towards opening up awareness to internal processes to enhance
learning is underscored in Buddhist and Western methods of ethical training. Dockett,
Dudley-Grant, & Bankart (2003) maintain that “understanding of oneself ultimately
promotes understanding of and the ability to help others” (p. 106).
A point of divergence when considering the construct of discipline in both Buddhism
and Western psychology is notable in relation to the personal/professional distinction. In
Buddhism, an emphasis on awareness of interconnectedness, responsibility to end suffering,
and the cultivation of wisdom towards virtuosity results in a form of being that is to be
actively cultivated mindfully in each moment of conscious awareness and is manifested in all
thoughts and actions. Dockett et al., (2003) discuss that the Buddha encourages selfdiscipline and reflexivity and “…counsels people to continually reflect on the consequences
42
of their actions before proceeding and to refrain from actions that are not conducive to
harmony in each situation [italics added]” (p. 148). Virtuous being in Buddhist thought is to
be cultivated moment-by-moment, which is in line with the present moment reality
orientation of Buddhist culture (Dockett et al., 2003). Western psychology appears to place a
larger emphasis on a linear path entailing a future focus (Dockett et al., 2003). This
emphasis, coupled with a greater orientation towards individualism and reductionism, results
in boundaries in personal / professional distinction. Such boundaries are essential in
respecting individual autonomy and ensuring protection from harm. A distinct boundary can
be noted in the CPA code of ethics when considering that psychologists have “…an
affirmative duty to indicate when they are speaking as a matter of a personal opinion as
opposed to speaking as experts” (Pipes et al., 2005). It is important to note that not all
Western paradigms relating to ethics in psychology maintain a segregation between the
personal and professional. For example, Feminist Psychology postulates that “…personal
values and professional identity are inextricably interwoven with the idea of professional
values and ethics” (p. 329).
Virtue ethics, which appears to be a common overarching guiding philosophy in
Buddhism and in the CPA code of ethics, suggests that “…the kind of person someone is (in
some total sense) drives what the person does and how the person thinks in the professional
as well as in the personal realm” (Pipes et al., 2005, p. 330). After comparison, it appears that
underlying universal values of benevolence, compassion, and self-reflexivity, affiliated with
both Buddhist and Western ethical systems, are prevalent regardless of worldview,
dichotomous classification of individualism / collectivism, future / present orientation, and,
thus, classification according to cultural influence.
43
In light of universal shared values between Buddhist and Western culture it is
essential to re-visit emic and etic perspectives, as these perspectives impact understanding of
multicultural correspondence (Arthur & Collins, 2006). The emic vantage point maintains
that “specific cultural knowledge” (p. 18) is required when working with diverse groups.
Therefore, an emphasis is placed on understanding cultural uniqueness through ontological
and epistemological considerations that are compatible with unique cultural experiences. In
essence, a “culture-specific” (p. 18) orientation is maintained from this perspective. The Etic
vantage point postulates that there are “commonalties across cultural groups” (p. 18) and that
“encounters are multicultural in nature” (p. 18). Therefore, a stronger universal orientation is
maintained.
Pros and cons of the emic and etic debate are beyond the scope of this discussion, yet
awareness of each is beneficial when considering implications of a merging of minds from
Buddhist and Western frames of reference. Consideration of emic presuppositions honour
cultural backgrounds through promoting awareness of cultural uniqueness (Arthur & Collins,
2006), yet making specific cultural conclusions based on cultural reductionism may run the
risk of marginalization and erroneous assumptions. Etic presuppositions honour a
“heterogeneity of experiences” (p. 20) and that mindset that “although clients may have
similar backgrounds, their experiences, their worldview, and their needs are never identical”
(p. 20).
Arthur & Collins (2006) present a balanced approach when considering emic and etic
perspectives emphasising culturally-infused practice. Balance is central to the Mahāyāna path
in Buddhism which postulates a middle-path pertaining to the noble eight-fold path and
virtuous being.
44
It appears that a culturally infused mindset, which can be directed towards the
cultivation of compassion and virtuous livelihood through a disciplined practice, is indicative
of a middle-path in Buddhism and Western practice of ethics in psychology. An emphasis on
reflexivity and the integration of new learning is in accordance with Buddhism and Western
competency skill development, which should commence with internal mental processes of
the individual. Awareness cultivated by the individual through disciplined introspection,
paradoxically, may promote generation of genuine awareness of interconnectedness with all
and hence genuine compassion when orientation towards other as self predominates and a
virtuous ethical perspective is maintained.
Integration
After comparing Buddhism and Western ethics philosophy and the CPA code of
ethics, it appears to the writer that practical postulations rooted in ethical philosophical
theory require not reductionism, but construct infusion and interconnectedness of
perspectives. By cognizance of universal values, and competent manifestation of these values
through action based on linguistically clear meaning-making processes, aspirational being
and practice may be realized. Universal values appear to be categorized as external
phenomena based on a Western dominant reference point. Moreover, universal values appear
to require internal cultivation and identification as a preliminary action when borrowing from
Buddhist wisdom. Internal cultivation of genuine compassion, derived from practice of
discipline and reflexivity, may then lead to multicultural unity. This result may further
substantiate a universal declaration for psychologists by bridging the gap between Buddhist
and Western ethical systems and, consequentially, promoting a balance between head and
heart in our other oriented field.
45
As the comparison of Buddhist and Western ethical perspectives comes to a close,
consideration of implications warrant consideration in order to bring the aforementioned
mindset into the realms of practical application and into the global arena.
46
Implications
The comparison between Buddhism and Western ethics discourse and the CPA code
of ethics suggests to the author that the middle path between universal value identification
and honouring individual uniqueness and cultural diversity is of paramount importance.
Hershock (2000) maintains that “the proper orientation of [human] rights conversations
would thus be toward developing an appreciation of contributory uniqueness and a
cultivation of the harmonic possibilities opened up by our very differences” (p. 26). The
common reference point of compassion as a guiding phenomenon of profound influence may
bridge differences in linguistics, economics, politics, religious affiliation, and cultural
diversity so a universal way of ethically being in the world can evolve. The implications of
not opening up to the possibilities to other frames of reference in a culturally infused manner
may result in what Miovic (2004) describes as pseudo-respect. Moreover, “[f]or how can we
honestly claim to ‘respect’ a client’s [/international cohort’s] religious/spiritual life [or
professional world view] unless we genuinely hold open the possibility that his or her world
view may reflect correct perceptions about the actual nature of reality?” (p. 106). As a result,
a sense of urgency ensues as we attend to ethical concerns in local and global arenas. Prior to
discussion of implications on an international level practical applications of merging
Buddhist and Western paradigms are discussed.
This study supports the concept of infusion of virtuous learning and being for
practitioners in ethics discourse. Hadjistavropoulos & Malloy (2000) propose a synthesis of
philosophical schools of thought where teleology, deontology, and existentialism are all
considered adjunct to consideration of the following influences: individual development,
nature of the specific dilemma, impact of significant others, cultural climate and context, and
47
external influences (society, politics, etc.). The CPA code of ethics ten step decision making
process is then considered in conjunction with the aforementioned reflexive and global
synthesis (internal and external influences) in relation to the ethical dilemma. Harper (2006)
presents the construct of ethical multiculturalism when engaging in concept analysis of
nursing research literature on ethics and cross-cultural ethical issues.
Harper (2006) presents that “cross-cultural ethical issues must be considered in view
of linguistic, cultural, and economic differences” (p. 110) and postulates that ethical
multiculturalism “… recognizes fundamental [universal] ethical principles but allows such
principles to be applied in a culturally relevant manner” (p. 111). Global values of
compassionate care and benevolence supersede cultural divides in the culturally infused
mindset of both Buddhist ethics and the CPA code of ethics.
Ethics training in the West often entails learning rules, standards, and principles, and
having experiential exposure to integrate learning. Handelsman, Knapp, & Cottlieb (2005)
are concerned with maintaining solely a Western perspective by indicating:
The clinical practicum milieu may include factors that inhibit the ability of new
trainees to learn how to think through complex ethical issues. These factors may
include the reliance on supervisors that occurs early in clinical training, a lack of time
for reflection, and the necessity to act. (p. 63)
The infusion of Buddhist ethical practice with Western systems would complement ethical
training and practice for psychologists and would assist to prepare them for cultural
collaboration. Mindfulness and meditation would contribute to counselling practice that is
reflexive and compassionately oriented.
48
Compatibility of Western and Buddhist ethical thinking on a practical level, as
opposed to solely on a philosophical level, entails redirection towards salient universal
values, while respecting cultural differences. For example, freedom of consent has different
meaning depending on cultural context. Asian perspectives place greater emphasis on the
collective view of consent, whereas Western culture emphasizes the autonomous self,
protecting individual rights. By shifting the emphasis towards the values of benevolent care
and respecting compassionately the unique cultural needs of the individual we enter a sphere
of practice where consent is still honoured, but through a culturally infused lens. This results
in openness towards aspirational reframing as opposed to the rigidity of paradigm-centric
practice. Universal values may also be considered when examining dual relationships. Dual
relationships may be defined as “…assuming a second role with a client, becoming
[counsellor or] social worker and friend, employer, teacher, business associate, family
member, or sex partner.” (Kagle & Giebelhausen, 1994, p. 213). A psychologist may be
entering into a dual relationship whether he/she enters the second relationship before, during,
or after the therapeutic relationship. The CPA code of ethics maintains that a psychologist is
to “…[m]anage dual or multiple relationships that are unavoidable due to cultural norms or
other circumstances in such manner that bias, lack of objectivity, and risk of exploitation are
minimized” (Sinclair & Pettifor, 2001, p. 85). An emphasis placed on being mindful of
cultural norms, while ensuring benevolent action through reflexivity, is implicitly present in
the CPA code of ethics. The manifestation of the aspirational value of true compassion and
benevolence entails culturally infused ethical practice, which first commences with selfreflexivity. A shift towards conscious and explicit awareness of aspirational practice appears
to be the next phase towards realizing virtue ethics locally and globally. A collaborative
49
union of Buddhist constructs and CPA code of ethics may support the underlying premise of
the Universal Declaration for Psychologists.
A key aim of the Universal Declaration of Ethical Principles for Psychologists (Ad
Hoc Joint Committee: Draft Proposal –2007-06-14) is to provide:
A shared moral framework that will help to ensure that members of the psychology
community recognize that they carry out their activities within a larger social context
and that they must act with integrity, and develop and apply psychological knowledge
and skills in a manner that benefits humanity and that prevents such knowledge and
skills from being used to harm or oppress persons or peoples. (p. 1)
A joint Buddhist and Western reality, where interconnectedness through genuine compassion
is of the essence, would be possible in a shared psychological community in which
relationships to the larger social context are maintained.
Practical application of personal reflexivity and a culturally infused mindset in
professional and personal practice may open the door for collaboration with others on a new
level. An impediment to the aspirational mindset that has resulted from this comparative
work is a paradigm-centric view. A paradigm-centric view entails one reality superseding the
potentialities and realisation of other ones. It appears the reverse may be true where multiple
paradigms complement each other when considering virtuous being.
The results of this comparative assessment support a call for merging the Western
world view ethical thinking and the values and beliefs of other cultures and religions. Such a
union could not be more important or timely when considering the current reality of “the
proliferation of scientific and applied specialisation, regional revitalisation, the expansion of
psychology in developing countries, the feminisation of psychology, and the emergence of
50
new paradigms that accentuate contextual realities and challenges (e.g., multiculturalism and
indigenization)” (Stevens & Wedding, 2004, p. 481) on an international level. An alternative
focus appears to be warranted where instead of an emphasis on holding a right answer,
superior mechanism, or absolute way of viewing ethics in the world, being open to potentials
which may result from diversity and uniqueness that are beyond the scope of our present
understanding may prove to result in interesting discoveries about ourselves and our
international cohorts. While this study highlights the compatibility of Buddhist values with
those of Western psychology, further study is needed to compare the values of other major
world religions with those of Western society and with each other.
51
Conclusion
A comparison between Buddhism and Western philosophical ethics and the CPA
code of ethics resulted in key constructs warranting consideration; compassion, human
suffering, benevolence, and clear adherence towards a virtuous discipline appear to be pivotal
in order to engage in constructive, ethically sound interactions with ourselves, our local
colleagues, and our international brothers and sisters. The essence of virtuous being, resulting
from this comparative work, commences with an effective merging of head and heart.
Merging of perspectives can result in wise ethical practice through the genuine cultivation of
compassion with intent, and through the process of individual reflexivity, and a culturally
infused mindset. A collective responsibility may then ensue which, according to Buddhism,
the CPA code of ethics, and endeavours of the Universal Declaration of Ethical Principles for
Psychologists, may guide cultivation of a shared vision of universally understood values and
moral being. A shared vision will be enriched by the inclusion and merging of moral beliefs
of other major world religions.
52
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