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INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Mr. Bouwkamp WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? Brainstorm (for about 1 minute) What do you know about Psychology? What do you want to know about Psychology? QUICK ANSWER Psychology connects the natural sciences to the social sciences. Human Behavior Mental processes Real-life application of principles learned Uses science to figure out why individuals do the things they do. FORMAL DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes What does this mean to you? Behavior observable actions of a person or animal Mind thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions, memories, dreams, motives and other subjective experiences Science an objective way to answer questions based on observable facts/data and well-described methods Scientific Method?? SCIENTIFIC METHOD State the Problem Formulate a hypothesis Select a strategy Collect relevant data Analyze data Evaluate hypothesis to generate conclusion Philosophical Developments A Question: How are mind and body related? René Descartes (1596– 1650)—Interactive dualism The mind and body interact to produce conscious experience Philosophical Developments Another Nature Question: vs. Nurture Other Questions Are abilities determined by our genes or our experiences? What are the interactions between genetics and environment? What effect does it have on behavior? WHO WE WILL STUDY We have to study the people Wundt Freud Watson Pavlov Skinner Etc. Foundations of Modern Psychology Separated from philosophy in 19th century influences from physiology remain Charles Darwin Not a Psychologist Was most responsible for idea that human behavior and thinking might be a subject for scientific inquiry Showed humans weren’t above laws of nature PEOPLE YOU SHOULD KNOW WILHELM WUNDT Late 1800’s Leipzig, Germany Published first psychology textbook Principles of Physiological Psychology Opened first psychology research lab Wundt cont. applied laboratory techniques to study of the mind Structuralism Stresses basic units of experience and combination in which they occur Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) EDWARD TITCHENER Student of Wundt’s Developed structuralism Broke behaviors down to basic parts, or structures Used introspection Example- Titchener showed an apple People would then tell him what they thought immediately after viewing the apple Used this to study people’s personalities WILLIAM JAMES First well-known American psychologist Responsible for developing American psychology Also developed functionalism Emphasized the purpose of behaviors Functionalism Goes beyond mere sensation and perception to explore how an organism learns to function in its environment G. STANLEY HALL Founded the APA Founded the first US psychology journal American Journal of Psychology Founded first psychology lab in US SIGMUND FREUD Austrian physician, probably most well-known psychologist Developed psychoanalysis Focused on the importance of unconscious mental processes SIGMUND FREUD CARL JUNG Student of Freud Best known for developing concepts of introverts and extroverts IVAN PAVLOV Russian physiologist who did research on the digestive system Developed the concept of classical conditioning Like how your mouth waters when you smell good food JOHN WATSON Developed what came to be known as behaviorism Focused on the role of rewards and punishments, How each affect behaviors B.F. SKINNER Expanded Watson’s ideas His ideas shape Americans’ everyday lives Had a big head CARL ROGERS Developed humanistic psychology Used in therapy Is a very positive theory ABRAHAM MASLOW Developed a theory of motivation Hierarchy of needs is used in many fields STANLEY MILGRAM Social psychologist Studied how people are persuaded to do things Influenced by Nazi Germany PHILLIP ZIMBARDO One of the most important psychologists in the field today Also a social psychologist Narrates many of the videos we watch PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY This is the point of view a psychologist would take when studying behaviors, topics, or issues TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Biological Cognitive Psychodynamic Behavioral Humanistic Sociocultural Evolutionary BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE Based on study of nervous system, immune system, and genetics BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE CONT. Biological perspective typically studies effects of drugs, use brain imaging techniques We’ll explore this perspective in chapters two and three COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE Focuses on how people process information, develop language and think Advent of computers popularized this perspective PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE Based on the theories of Sigmund Freud Focus on importance of unconscious influences, childhood, and relationships Also work with dream interpretation BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE Focuses on the role of the environment to acquire and modify behaviors Basis of rewards and punishments HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE Focuses on the ability of people to make choices to grow and improve their lives A very “nice” perspective SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE Focuses on role of groups to influence behavior Also do some cross-cultural research EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE Focuses on evolution to explain behaviors We’ll discuss this perspective with phobias SUB-FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY These are the specific areas psychologists may study CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY Studies the causes, treatment, and prevention of psychological disorders Most popular sub-field (37% of all psychologists) Includes counselors SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Social psychologists study the effects of groups and society on individuals EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Conduct scientific research in many areas of psychology (6% of all psychologists) Usually professors at universities SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY Psychologists employed by schools to care for student population Do a lot of testing and evaluation of students 3% of all psychologists DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Study how humans develop and change from birth to death Usually focus on children 6% of all psychologists A FEW SELECTED SPECIALTY AREAS… FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY Work within criminal justice system People who determine psychological state of criminals INDUSTRIAL/ ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Work in the business world Usually involved in human resources Good for those that want to make lots of money without lots of school SPORT PSYCHOLOGY Use psychological principles to improve athletic performance RESEARCH METHODS USED BY PSYCHOLOGISTS Descriptive methods Correlational methods Experimental research RESEARCH METHODS Correlational Descriptive Experimental DESCRIPTIVE METHODS Include Observational techniques Case studies Survey research Seek to provide objective and detailed descriptions of behavior and mental processes DESCRIPTIVE METHODS: OBSERVATIONAL TECHNIQUES The researcher directly observes the behavior of interest Naturalistic observation: The behavior being observed occurs in its natural setting, without the researcher intervening in the behavior being observed. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION Researchers use naturalistic observation when they are interested in how humans or other animals behave in their natural environments For instance, two well-known observational studies were done by Dian Fossey in a study of mountain gorillas in Africa, and Jane Goodall’s study of chimpanzees in Africa This technique is also used in settings such as schools & the workplace Participant observation: The observer becomes part of the group being observed. This type of research is similar to undercover police work. PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION In most observational studies, the observer begins the study as a participant, whether in a laboratory or a natural setting One famous example of participant observation was conducted by Rosenhan (1973). In this study, psychologists posing as patients with symptoms of a major mental disorder were admitted to psychiatric hospitals because the doctors could not tell the psychologists from the real disordered patients. Once admitted, these “pseudopatients” acted normally and asked to be released. However, they were not released until many days later! DESCRIPTIVE METHODS: CASE STUDIES The researcher studies an individual in depth over an extended period of time to attempt to learn as much as possible about the individual being studied Often used in clinical settings to gather information that will help in the treatment of the patient Results of case studies cannot be generalized to other people DESCRIPTIVE METHODS: CASE STUDIES Case studies do allow the researcher to develop hypotheses that can be tested using experimental research For instance, the case of H. M., who had his hippocampus removed for medical reasons at a young age, was a case study. H. M. seemed to have normal memory for information learned before the surgery, but didn’t seem to be able to form any new memories. Such a finding led to the hypothesis that the hippocampus plays an important role in the formation of new memories, which was supported by subsequent experimental research DESCRIPTIVE METHODS: SURVEY RESEARCH Uses questionnaires and interviews to collect information about the behavior, beliefs, and attitudes of particular groups of people It is critical to note that the wording, order, and structure of the survey questions may lead the participants to biased answers For instance, some questions might evoke socially-desirable responses in an effort to make certain impressions on the researchers DESCRIPTIVE METHODS: SURVEY RESEARCH Another concern for survey researchers is defining the population, or the entire group of people to be studied From that population, a representative sample, or subset of the people in the population, is surveyed The sample must be representative of the larger relevant population so you can generalize results of the survey from the smaller sample to the larger population A REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE? In a study of women and love, a sample was drawn mainly from women’s organizations and political groups, plus some women who requested and completed a survey following the researcher’s talk show appearances Thus, the results (which said that women having affairs and being disenchanted in their relationships with men was typical) were not representative of the population of American women RANDOM SAMPLING Each individual in the population has an equal opportunity of being in the sample It is much like drawing names from a hat Random sampling allows the researcher to generalize his or her findings from the sample to the larger population CORRELATIONAL METHODS Two variables are measured to determine if they are related A variable is any factor that can take on more than one value (e.g., height, age, GPA, extraversion level) THE CORRELATION COEFFICIENT A statistic that tells us the type and the strength of the relationship between two variables Range in value from -1.0 to +1.0 The sign of the coefficient (- or +) tells us the type of relationship, positive or negative POSITIVE CORRELATION A positive correlation indicates a direct relationship between two variables, with low scores on one variable tending to be paired with low scores on the other variable, and high scores on one variable tending to be paired with high scores on the other variable For instance, SAT scores and first-year college GPA tend to be positively correlated A person’s height and weight also tend to be positively correlated NEGATIVE CORRELATION A negative correlation is an inverse relationship between two variables, with low scores on one variable tending to be paired with high scores on the other variable For instance, there is a negative correlation between how much time a student watches TV and his or her grades in school Mountain elevation level and temperature are also negatively correlated STRENGTH OF RELATIONSHIP The second part of the correlation coefficient is its absolute value, which ranges from 0 to 1 Zero and absolute values near zero indicate no relationship As the absolute value increases toward 1.0, the strength of the relationship increases It is critical to note that the sign of the coefficient tells us nothing about the strength of the relationship SCATTERPLOTS A scatterplot is a visual depiction of correlational data On the X axis are scores on one variable; on the Y axis are scores on the second variable Each data point in the scatterplot is a person’s scores on each of the two variables THE THIRD-VARIABLE PROBLEM Strong correlations give us excellent predictability, but they do not allow us to draw cause-and-effect conclusions about the relationships between the two variables The third-variable problem occurs when a third, unmeasured variable is responsible for the relationship observed between the two measured variables For example,the length of time a man is married is negatively correlated with the amount of hair on his head Does this mean that being married longer causes a man’s hair to fall out? EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH The key aspect of experimental research is that the researcher controls the experimental setting It is this control that allows the researcher to make cause-andeffect statements about the experimental results EXPERIMENTAL CONTROL First, the experimenter controls for the influence of possible third-variables by making sure that they are held constant across all of the experimental groups/conditions Second, the experimenter controls for any possible influence due to the individual characteristics of the participants, such as intelligence, by using random assignment, which is randomly assigning the participants to groups in an experiment to equalize participant characteristics across the various groups in the experiment DESIGNING AN EXPERIMENT When a researcher designs an experiment, the researcher begins with a hypothesis about the cause-and-effect relationship between two variables One of the variables is assumed to be the cause, and the other variable is the one to be affected The independent variable is the hypothesized cause, and the experimenter manipulates it The dependent variable is the variable that is hypothesized to be affect by the independent variable and thus is measured by the experimenter DESIGNING THE EXPERIMENT The simplest of experiments is one with two groups, in which participants are randomly assigned to one of the groups One of the groups will be exposed to the independent variable, and the other group will not be The group exposed to the independent variable is called the experimental group The group not exposed to the independent variable is called the control group FOR EXAMPLE… If the hypothesis is that aerobic exercise reduces anxiety, then the independent variable to be manipulated is aerobic exercise, and the dependent variable will be anxiety level The experimental group will participate in some aerobic exercise program, and the control group will not The experiment must measure the anxiety levels for the groups at the beginning of the study before the independent variable is manipulated and then again after the manipulation If the two groups are truly equivalent, the average anxiety level for each group at the start of the study should be the same If aerobic exercise does reduce anxiety, then we should see this difference in the second measurement at the end of the experiment THE PLACEBO GROUP In addition to the experimental and control groups, we need to add a placebo group to improve the experiment A placebo group is a group of participants that believes they are receiving treatment but are not They receive a placebo, a harmless pill that has no active ingredients For example, this group would be told they are getting an antianxiety drug, but they would only get a placebo THE PLACEBO GROUP The placebo effect is improvement due to the expectation of improving because of receiving treatment The reduction of anxiety in the experimental group participants may, in fact, be partially or completely due to a placebo effect To conclude that the reduction of anxiety in the experimental group was not due to a placebo effect, it would have to be significantly greater than that observed for the placebo group Done, skip to slide 125 INFERENTIAL STATISTICAL ANALYSES Indicate the probability that the results of a study are due to random variation (chance) Of course, the researchers would want this probability to be low INFERENTIAL STATISTICAL ANALYSES CONT. In statistics, a “significant” finding is one that has a probability less than 0.05 (1/20) that it is due to chance Thus, a significant finding is one that is not likely due to chance THE DOUBLE-BLIND PROCEDURE A control measure in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know which participants actually got the treatment and or got the placebo Controls for experimenter expectations If the experimenter knew which condition the participants were in, then s/he might unintentionally treat them differently and thereby impact their behavior RESEARCH METHODS Method Goal Data Collection Naturalistic observation Description Unobtrusively observe behavior of a group in its natural setting Participant observation Description Observer becomes part of group whose behavior is being observed Case study Description Study an individual in depth over an extended period of time Survey Description Representative sample of a group completes questionnaires or interviews to determine behavior, beliefs, and attitudes of the group Correlational Description study Measure two variables to determine whether they are related Experiment Manipulate one or more independent variables in a controlled setting to determine their impact on one or more measured dependent variables Explanation HOW TO UNDERSTAND RESEARCH RESULTS Descriptive statistics Frequency distributions TYPES OF STATISTICS Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics Used to describe the data of a research study in a concise fashion Indicate the probability that the results of the study are due to random variation DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS Two types of descriptive statistics Measures of central tendency Measures of variability A researcher will also often examine a frequency distribution, which depicts in a table or graph, the number of participants receiving each score for a variable MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY Designed to summarize a set of data with a single number THREE MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY 1.The mean is the numerical average for a distribution of score 2. The median is the score that is positioned in the middle of the distribution of scores when scores are listed from lowest to highest If there is an odd number of scores, the median is the middle score If there is an even number of scores, the median is the average of the two center scores 3. The mode is the most frequently-occurring score in a distribution of scores If two scores occur with equal frequency, both can be the mode ABOUT THE MEAN… The mean is the most commonly used measure of central tendency because it is used to analyze data in many inferential statistical tests However, the mean, because it uses all scores in its computation, can be distorted by extremely high or extremely low scores MEASURES OF VARIABILITY Designed to provide an idea of how scattered a set of scores tends to be TWO MEASURES OF VARIABILITY 1. The range is the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution of scores Like the mean, the range can be greatly distorted by extremely high or extremely low scores 2. The standard deviation is the average extent to which the scores vary from the mean of the distribution A small standard deviation means that scores do not vary very much from the mean A larger standard deviation means that scores tend to vary greatly from the mean SUMMARY OF DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS Organizes the data in a score distribution so that we know the frequency of each score Types of distributions Normal Distributions Skewed Distributions NORMAL DISTRIBUTIONS The mean, the median, and the mode are all equal because the normal distribution is symmetric about its center The percentage of scores falling within a certain number of standard deviations of the mean is set About 68% of the scores fall within 1 standard deviation of the mean About 95% fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean More than 99% fall within 3 standard deviations of the mean It is these percentages that give the normal distribution its bell shape NORMAL DISTRIBUTIONS NORMAL DISTRIBUTIONS WITH DIFFERENT STANDARD DEVIATIONS PERCENTILE RANK The percentage of scores below a specific score in a distribution of scores For instance, the percentile rank of a score that is 1 standard deviation above the mean is roughly 84% Note that you can never have a percentile rank of 100% because it is impossible to outscore yourself You can, however, have a percentile rank of 0% if you have the lowest score in the distribution SKEWED DISTRIBUTIONS Are asymmetrical in shape A right-skewed (also called positively skewed) distribution is a frequency distribution in which there are some unusually high scores, but most scores tend to be low A left-skewed (also called negatively skewed) distribution is a frequency distribution in which there are some unusually low score, but most scores tend to be high SAMPLE SKEWED DISTRIBUTIONS SKEWED DISTRIBUTIONS Because unusually high or low scores distort a mean, such distortion occurs for the means of skewed distributions The mean for a right-skewed distribution is distorted toward the tail created by the few high scores and so is greater than the median The mean for a left-skewed distribution is distorted toward the tail created by the few low scores and so is less than the median Consequently, when you have a skewed distribution, you should use the median because atypical scores in the distribution do not distort the median WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A PSYCHOLOGIST AND A PSYCHIATRIST? Psychiatrists are medical doctors, go to medical school As such, they can prescribe drugs, and often do Psychologists rely on nondrug therapies to solve problems Which to go to? Depends on problem, but generally safer to go to psychologist first PSYCHOLOGY IN COLLEGE THE GOOD… Will gain tremendous knowledge and insight to human behavior Great compliment to any career that involves social interactions Can learn to be very manipulative THE BAD Can’t do much with B.A. (except teach high school) Need Master’s degree to practice in MI VERY competitive, most graduate programs require 3.75 GPA or better THE END Test will be…