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Chapter 16
Managers as Leaders
© Prentice Hall, 2002
17-1
Learning Objectives
You should learn to:
1. Explain the difference between managers and
leaders
2. Describe the trait and behavioral theories of
leadership
3. Explain the Fiedler contingency model
4. Contrast the Hersey-Blanchard and leader
participation models of leadership
5. Summarize the path-goal model
© Prentice Hall, 2002
17-2
Learning Objectives (cont.)
You should learn to:
1. Contrast transactional and transformational leaders
2. Describe the main characteristics of charismatic,
visionary, and team leaders
3. Explain the various sources of power a leader
might possess
4. Describe how leaders can create a culture of trust
5. Explain gender and cultural differences in
leadership
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Manager and Leader
• Some Authors treat them equally.
• Managers appointed to their positions. Their abilities
to influence based on the formal authority inherited
in that position.
• Leaders may be either appointed or emerged from a
work group.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Leadership
Leader
someone who can influence others and who has
managerial authority.
• all managers should ideally be leaders.
• not all leaders have the ability to be an effective
manager. (performing management functions).
Leadership
• process of influencing a group toward the
achievement of goals.
• a heavily researched topic
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Managers Versus Leaders
Managers
Leaders
– Are appointed to their
position.
– Are appointed or
emerge from within a
work group.
– Can influence people
only to the extent of
the formal authority of
their position.
– Can influence other
people and have
managerial authority.
– Do not necessarily
have the skills and
capabilities to be
leaders.
– Do not necessarily
have the skills and
capabilities to be
managers.
Leadership is the process of influencing a
group toward the achievement of goals.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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prentice Hall 2010
Early Leadership Theories
Trait Theories:
• Research in the 1920s and 1930s focused basically on
leader traits.
leader traits - characteristics that might be used to
differentiate leaders from non-leaders.
• Might be used as a basis for selecting the “right”
people to assume formal leadership positions.
• Proved to be impossible to identify a set of traits that
would always differentiate leaders from non-leaders.
• Explanations based solely on traits ignored the
interactions of leaders, their groups, and situational
factors.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Traits associated with leadership
1- drive: have ambitious and energy, tirelessly.
2- desire to lead.
3- honesty and integrity: building trusting
relationships.
4- self-confidence.
5- Intelligence
6- job relevance knowledge.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Early Leadership Theories
Behavioral Theories
Identify behavior that differentiate
effective leaders from ineffective
leaders.
• There are four leader behavior
studies:
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Early Leadership Theories
Behavioral Theories
First: University of Iowa Studies - Kurt Lewin.
• Explored three leadership styles:
• Autocratic - leader dictated work methods.
Centralize authority.
• Democratic - involved employees in decision
making. used feedback to coach employees
• Laissez-faire/lenient - gave the group
complete freedom to make decisions and
complete work.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Early Leadership Theories
Behavioral Theories
First: University of Iowa Studies - Kurt
Lewin.
• Explored three leadership styles:
• Which style is better? Discussion
• results were mixed with respect to
performance
–satisfaction higher with democratic
leader
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Early Leadership Theories (cont.)
Behavioral Theories (cont.):
• Second: Ohio State Studies - identified two
dimensions of leadership behavior.
• initiating structure - a leader was likely to
define and structure her/his role and the roles
of group members to seek goal attainment.
• It includes: attempts to organize work, work
relationships, and goals.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Early Leadership Theories (cont.)
Behavioral Theories (cont.):
• Second: Ohio State Studies - identified two
dimensions of leadership behavior.
• consideration - a leader had job relationships
characterized by mutual trust and respect for
group members’ ideas and feelings.
• findings - high-high leaders achieved high
group task performance and satisfaction
• however, high-high was not always
effective. There is a need to integrate
situational factors.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Early Leadership Theories (cont.)
Behavioral Theories (cont.).
Third: University of Michigan Studies - identified two
dimensions of leadership
• employee oriented - emphasized interpersonal
relationships
• accepts individual differences among subordinates
• associated with high group productivity.
• production oriented - emphasized the technical or task
aspects of the job.
• concerned with accomplishing the group’s tasks
• associated with low group productivity and low job
satisfaction
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Early Leadership Theories (cont.)
Behavioral Theories (cont.)
• Fourth: Managerial Grid - two-dimensional
grid that provides a framework for
conceptualizing leadership style
• dimensions are concern for people and
concern for production.
• It ranked them on scale from 1 to 9. though we
have 81 potential categories, emphasis was
placed on five management styles described.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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The
Managerial
Grid
Source: Reprinted by permission of
Harvard Business Review. An exhibit
from “Breakthrough in Organization
Development” by Robert R. Blake,
Jane S. Mouton, Louis B. Barnes,
and Larry E. Greiner, November–
December 1964, p. 136. Copyright ©
1964 by the President and Fellows of
Harvard College. All rights reserved.
Exhibit 17.3
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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prentice
Hall 2010
Early Leadership Theories (cont.)
Behavioral Theories (cont.)
• impoverished (1,1) - minimum effort to reach
goals and sustain organization membership.
• Task management (9,1) - arrange operations
to be efficient with minimum human
involvement.
• middle-of-the-road (5,5) - adequate
performance by balancing work and human
concerns
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Early Leadership Theories (cont.)
Behavioral Theories (cont.)
Managerial Grid (cont.)
• five management styles described (cont.)
• country club (1,9) - attention to human needs and
creation of comfortable work environment. Limited
concern for production.
• team (9,9) - committed people motivated by a common
purpose, trust, and mutual respect.
• concluded that managers should use (9,9) style.
• little empirical evidence to support that (9,9) style is
effective in all situations.
• The Grid offer no answer for what made a manager an
effective leader
© Prentice Hall, 2002
17-18
Group work
Identify the suitable style of leadership
to the following situation:
The country is under crisis situation,
too much rumors and unemployment
reached 80%.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
17-19
Contingency Theories Of Leadership
Basic Assumptions
• leader effectiveness depends on the
situation.
• Must isolate situational conditions or
contingencies
© Prentice, Hall 2010
17-20
Contingency Theories (cont.)
Fiedler Model
• effective group performance depends on
matching the leader’s style and the degree
to which the situation permits the leader
to control and influence.
• Fiedler believes that person’s style was
one of two: task oriented or relationship
oriented.
• He developed:
© Prentice Hall, 2010
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Contingency Theories (cont.)
• Fiedler developed the leastpreferred co-worker (LPC)
questionnaire, that measures
whether a person is task or
relationship oriented.
• This questionnaire contained 18
pairs of adjectives, and the leaders
were asked to describe the person
they least preferred to work with.
© Prentice Hall, 2010
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Contingency Theories (cont.)
• He also isolated three situational criteria
that he believed could be
manipulated\controlled to create the
proper match with the behavioral
orientation.
–High score: a relationship-oriented
leadership style
–Low score: a task-oriented
leadership style
© Prentice Hall, 2010
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Contingency Theories (cont.)
Fiedler Model (cont.)
• These three criteria are as follows:
1. leader-member relations - degree of confidence,
trust, and respect members had for leader.
2. Task structure - degree to which job assignments
were formalized and procedurized.
3. Position power - degree of influence a leader had
over power-based activities. such as hiring, firing,
discipline, promotions, and salary increases.
• model assumes that leader’s style was always the
same and could not change in different situations
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Findings Of The Fiedler Model
Good
Performance
Task
Oriented
Relationship
Oriented
Poor
Favorable
Category
I
Leader-Member
Good
Relations
Task Structure
Position Power
© Prentice Hall, 2002
High
II
III
IV
Moderate
Unfavorable
V
VII VIII
VI
Good Good Good Poor Poor
Poor Poor
High
Low
Low
Low
High High
Low
Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak
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Contingency Theories (cont.)
Fiedler Model (cont.)
• results indicated that:
• task-oriented leaders performed better in
situations that are very favorable to them
and in situations that are very
unfavorable
• relationship-oriented leaders performed
better in situations that are moderately
favorable
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Contingency Theories (cont.)
Fiedler Model (cont.)
• Implications for improving leadership:
1. place leaders in situations suited to their
style
2. change the situation to fit the leader
• Considerable empirical support for the
model
• Drawbacks: unrealistic to assume that
leader cannot alter her/his style
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Contingency Theories (cont.)
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory
• appropriate leadership style is contingent on the
followers’ readiness
• readiness - extent to which people have the ability
and willingness to accomplish a specific task.
• reflects the reality that it is followers who accept or
reject the leader.
• based on two leadership dimensions task behaviors
and relationship behaviors.
• Designed like the relationship between father and
child.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Contingency Theories (cont.)
Situational Leadership Theory (cont.)
• four leadership styles defined by the two dimensions
• Telling – (high task-low relationship) leader defines
roles and tells people how to do their jobs. people
are neither competent nor confident. Suitable R1
• Selling - (high task- high relationship) leader is both
directive and supportive.
• people are unable but willing to do necessary tasks.
Suitable R2
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Contingency Theories (cont.)
Situational Leadership Theory (cont.)
• four leadership styles defined by the two dimensions
• Participating - (low task- high relationship) leader and
follower make decisions
• people are able but unwilling to do the job. Suitable R3
• Delegating - (low task-low relationship) leader provides
little direction or support. people are able and willing to do
the job. Suitable R4
• Tests of the theory have yielded disappointing results.
Because of internal model ambiguities and inconsistencies.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Contingency Theories… (cont’d)
Leader Participation Model (Vroom and
Yetton)
– Posits that leader behavior must be adjusted
to reflect the task structure—whether it is
routine, non-routine, or in between—based
on a sequential set of rules (contingencies)
for determining the form and amount of
follower participation in decision making in
a given situation.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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prentice Hall 2010
Contingency Theories… (cont’d)
Leader Participation Model Contingencies:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Decision significance
Importance of commitment
Leader expertise
Likelihood of commitment
Group support
Group expertise
Team competence
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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prentice Hall 2010
Contingency Theories (cont.)
Leader-Participation Model
• Victor Vroom and associates
• Developed in the early 1970s.
• Rule selection determined by the
situation.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Contingency Theories (cont.)
Leader Participation Model(cont.)
5 Leadership Styles
• Decide - leader makes decision alone, either announcing
or selling to group
• Consult Individually - leader makes decision after
obtaining feedback from group members individually
• Consult Group - leader makes decision after obtaining
feedback from group members in meeting
• Facilitate - leader, acting as facilitator, defines problem
and boundaries for decision-making after presenting it to
group
• Delegate - leader permits group to make decision within
prescribed limits
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Time-Driven Model
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Time-driven model
Short-term in its orientation and concern with making
effective decisions with minimum cost.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Contingency Theories (cont.)
Path-Goal Model
• Robert House - leader’s job is to assist
followers in attaining their goals that are
compatible /well-matched with the overall
objectives of the group or organization.
• Path-goal theory says that a leader’s behavior
is acceptable to subordinates to the degree that
they view it as an immediate source of
satisfaction or a source of future satisfaction.
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Contingency Theories (cont.)
Path-Goal Model
leader behavior is:
– acceptable to the degree that group views it as a
source of immediate or future satisfaction
– motivational to the extent that it:
• makes satisfaction of subordinates’ needs
contingent on effective performance
• provides the coaching, guidance, support, and
rewards necessary for effective performance
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Contingency Theories (cont.)
Path-Goal Model (cont.)
• identifies four leadership behaviors
1. Directive - describes tasks, sets schedules, and
offers guidance on task performance.
2. Supportive - shows concern for subordinates.
3. Participative - consults with subordinates and
uses their suggestions before making a
decision.
4. Achievement oriented - sets challenging goals
and expects subordinates to perform at their
highest level.
• assumes that a leader can display any or all
of the behaviors depending on the situation.17-40
Contingency Theories (cont.)
Path-Goal Model (cont.)
two contingency variables affect the leadership behavior:
• environment - outside the control of the
follower.
determine the type of leader behavior required if follower
outcomes are to be maximized.
• personal - characteristics of the follower.
•
determine how the environment and leader behavior are
interpreted
• leader behavior will be ineffective when:
1. It is redundant\ unneeded with sources of environmental
structure.
2. it is incongruent\unrelated with follower characteristics. 17-41
Some examples of the hypotheses
Some examples of the hypotheses that have evolved out of
path-goal theory include the following:
1. Directive leadership leads to greater satisfaction
when tasks are ambiguous or stressful than when
they’re highly structured and well laid out.
2. Directive leadership will lead to higher employee
satisfaction when there is substantive conflict within a
work group.
3. Supportive leadership results in high employee
performance and satisfaction when subordinates are
performing structured tasks.
4. Achievement-oriented leadership will increase
subordinates’ expectancies that effort will lead to high
performance when tasks are ambiguously structured.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Evidence supports to the Theory
Although not every research finding has been positive,
the majority of the evidence supports the logic
underlying path-goal theory, which is as follows:
a. Employee performance and satisfaction are likely to
be positively influenced when the leader
compensates for shortcomings in either the
employee or the work setting.
b.However, if the leader spends time explaining tasks
when those tasks are already clear or when the
employee has the ability and experience to handle
them, the employee is likely to see such behavior as
redundant or even insulting.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
17-43
Path-Goal Theory
Environmental
Contingency Factors
• Task Structure
Leader
Behavior
• Formal Authority System
• Work Group
Outcomes
• Directive
• Supportive
• Participative
• Achievement oriented
•Performance
• Satisfaction
Subordinate
Contingency Factors
• Locus of Control
© Prentice Hall, 2002
• Experience
• Perceived Ability
17-44
Comment
Office politics are a fact of life in
organizations. To gain control over
organizational resources, people exert
power. Those with good political
skills have the ability to use their
various sources of power effectively
to get what they need and want.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Cutting-Edge Approaches To Leadership
Three contemporary approaches to
leadership:
First: TransformationalTransactional Leadership
• Transactional - leaders who guide
or motivate their followers in the
direction of established goals by
clarifying role and task
requirements.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Cutting-Edge Approaches To Leadership
• transformational - inspire followers to
transcend\increase their own self-interests for
the good of the organization.
• Capable of having profound effect on
followers.
• Pay attention to concerns of followers.
• change followers’ awareness of issues.
• Excite and inspire followers to put forth extra
effort.
• Built on top of transactional leadership.
• Good evidence of superiority of this type of
leadership.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Cutting-Edge Approaches (cont.)
Three contemporary approaches to leadership:
Second: Charismatic-Visionary Leadership
It suggests that followers make attributions of
heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities
when they observe certain behaviors.
charismatic - enthusiastic, self-confident leader
whose personality and actions influence
people.
Personal characteristics:
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Cutting-Edge Approaches (cont.)
Personal characteristics:
1. Have a vision, 2. Are able to articulate that
vision, 3. Are willing to take risks to achieve
that vision, 4.
Are sensitive to both
environmental constraints and follower needs, 5.
Exhibit behaviors that are out of the ordinary
• charismatic leadership correlated with high job
performance and satisfaction among followers
• individuals can be trained to exhibit charismatic
behaviors
© Prentice Hall, 2002
17-49
Cutting-Edge Approaches (cont.)
Three contemporary approaches to leadership:
Second: Charismatic-Visionary Leadership (cont.)
visionary - is described as going beyond charisma with
the ability to create and articulate a realistic, credible,
attractive vision of the future for an organization .
1. If the vision is properly selected and implemented, it
can be so energizing that it incites\provoke
individuals to use their skills, talents, and resources to
make it happen.
2. A vision differs from other forms of organizational
direction in that it uses compelling imagery, taps into
people’s emotions and energy, and creates the
enthusiasm that people need to bring energy and
commitment to the workplace.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Example
Vision of Microsoft:
Computer runs software in
every home and on every disk.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Cutting-Edge Approaches (cont.)
Three contemporary approaches to leadership:
Second: Charismatic-Visionary Leadership (cont.)
3. The key properties of a vision are that it has
inspirational possibilities that are value
centered, are realizable, and are well
articulated.
4. What skills do visionary leaders have?
a. The ability to explain the vision to others.
b. The ability to express the vision not just
verbally but through behavior.
c. The ability to extend or apply the vision to
different leadership contexts.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
17-52
Cutting-Edge Approaches (cont.)
Three contemporary approaches to leadership:
Third: Team Leadership
As the usage of work teams grows, the role of
team leader becomes increasingly important.
1. The challenge for most managers is learning
how to become an effective team leader.
2. Effective team leaders have mastered the
difficult balancing act of knowing when to
leave their teams alone and when to get
involved.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Third: Team Leadership
•
a.
b.
•
There are two priorities for a team leader.
Managing the team’s external boundaries
Facilitating the team process.
These priorities can be broken down into four
specific leadership roles.
– a. Liaisons with external constituencies
– b. Troubleshooters
– c. Conflict managers
– d. Coaches
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Team leaders serve as:
• Liaisons\links with external constituencies - clarify
others’ expectations of the team, gather information
from the outside, and secure needed resources
• troubleshooters - ask penetrating questions, help team
talk through problems, and gather needed resources
• conflict managers - identify source of conflict, who is
involved, and find resolution options
• coaches - clarify role expectations, teach, offer
support, and whatever else is necessary to keep
performance levels high
© Prentice Hall, 2002
17-55
Specific Team Leadership Roles
Liaison with
external
constituencies
Coach
Team
Leadership
Roles
Conflict
manager
© Prentice Hall, 2002
Troubleshooter
17-56
Providing Online Leadership
Providing Online Leadership. How do you
lead when people are physically separated
from you?
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Providing Online Leadership
1.
In virtual settings, leaders need to learn new
communication skills.
2.Digital communications lack non verbal elements.
3.Managing performance online is a leadership
challenge.
a. As leaders define performance online, it’s important
that all members of a virtual team understand the
goals, their responsibilities, and how achievement
will be measured.
b. Online leaders need to facilitate performance.
c.
Trust
is
an
issue
in
a
virtual
environment.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Contemporary Issues In Leadership
Leaders and Power
What is power?
the capacity of a leader to influence
work actions or decisions.
And because leadership is all about
influence, we need to look at how
leaders acquire power.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Contemporary Issues In Leadership
Leaders and Power
French and Raven identified five sources or
bases of power.
1. legitimate - authority associated with a
position in the formal organizational
hierarchy.
2. Coercive\compelling - ability to punish or
control.
• followers react out of fear
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Contemporary Issues In Leadership
Leaders and Power
3. reward - ability to give positive benefits
• provide anything that another person values
4. expert - influence based on special skills or
knowledge
5. referent\source - arises because of a person’s
desirable resources or personal traits:
• leads to admiration and desire to be like that
person
Most effective leaders rely on several different
bases of power.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Creating the Culture of Trust
1. Credibility is the degree to which
followers perceive someone as honest,
competent, and able to inspire.
2. Trust is the belief in the integrity,
character, and ability of a leader.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Creating the Culture of Trust
- Research has identified five dimensions that make
up the concept of trust.
a. Integrity (honesty and truthfulness)
b.Competence (technical and interpersonal knowledge
and skills)
c. Consistency (reliability, predictability, and good
judgment in handling situations)
d.Loyalty (willingness to protect a person, physically
and emotionally)
e. Openness (willingness to share ideas and
information freely)
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Contemporary Issues In Leadership (cont.)
Given the fact that many organizations
have moved to self-managed work
teams, trust is extremely important
because many of the traditional
control mechanisms have been
removed.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Contemporary Issues In Leadership (cont.)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
How should leaders build trust? Here are eight
suggestions.
Practice openness.
Be fair.
Speak your feelings.
Tell the truth.
Show consistency.
Fulfill your promises.
Maintain confidences.
Demonstrate competence.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Building Trust
Practice
openness
Be fair
Demonstrate
competence
Speak your
feelings
Trust
Maintain
confidences
Tell the
truth
Fulfill your
promises
© Prentice Hall, 2002
Show
consistency
17-66
Contemporary Issues In Leadership (cont.)
Leading Through Empowerment
Empowerment: increasing the decision making
discretion\judgment of workers.
• The increased use of empowerment is being
driven by two forces.
a.The need for quick decisions by those people
who are most knowledgeable about the issues.
b. The reality that organizational downsizing
has left managers with larger spans of
control and in order to cope, managers are
turning to employee empowerment.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Contemporary Issues In Leadership (cont.)
Leading Through Empowerment
• Empowerment should not be
considered a universal
panacea\solution to problems. This
universal perspective is anticontingency.
• Instead, should be used where a
workforce has the knowledge, skills,
and experience to do jobs.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Gender and Leadership
The evidence generally has found that males and
females do use different leadership styles.
a. Women tend to adopt a more democratic or
participative style and a less autocratic or directive
style than men do.
b.Women are more likely to encourage participation,
share power and information, and attempt to
enhance followers’ self-worth.
c. Men are more likely to use a directive, commandand-control style.
d.Men rely on the formal authority of their position for
their influence base.
e. Men use transactional leadership, handing out
rewards for good work and punishment for bad. 17-69
© Prentice Hall, 2002
Leadership Styles in Different Countries
Effectiveness of leadership style influenced by national
culture.
• leaders constrained by the cultural conditions their
followers have come to expect.
Most leadership theories developed in the U.S. They:
1. Emphasize follower responsibilities rather than rights
2. Assume self-gratification\satisfaction rather than
commitment to duty
3. Assume centrality of work and democratic value
orientation
4. Stress rationality rather than spirituality
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Where Female Managers Do Better: A Scorecard
Source: R. Sharpe, “As Leaders, Women Rule,” BusinessWeek, November 20. 2000, p. 75.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
Exhibit 17.12
17–71
Cross-Cultural Leadership
Universal Elements of Effective
Leadership
– Vision
– Foresight
– Providing encouragement
– Trustworthiness
– Dynamism
– Positiveness
– Proactiveness
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Copyright © 2005
Features of Arab Management
1- Status and seniority significantly outweigh
ability and performance
2- Low level of delegation
3- Authoritarian management style
4- Decision-making is pushed upwards
5- Decisions are renegotiable at later time
6- Absence of Western-style of democratic
systems
7- Consultative style of decision-making are
dominant, and conducted on a person-toperson basis
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Features of Arab Management
8- Management is reactive and crisis oriented.
9- High level of uncertainty at work.
10- Strong preference of a person-oriented
.approach rather than a task oriented approach.
11- Nepotism is regarded as natural and
acceptable.
12- Value loyalty over efficiency.
13- Punctuality and time are of much less concern
14- Patriarchy society, the dominance of the
father
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Sometimes Leadership is Irrelevant!
• leader behaviors may be irrelevant in some situations
• factors that reduce leadership importance include:
1. follower characteristics - experience, training,
professional orientation, or need for independence
replace the need for leader support and ability to
reduce ambiguity.
2. job characteristics - unambiguous and routine tasks, or
tasks that are satisfying, place fewer demands on
leaders
3. organizational characteristics - explicit goals, rigid
rules and procedures, and cohesive work groups can
substitute for formal leadership
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Review
What types of power are available
to you? Which ones do you use
most? Why?
Use French and Raven’s list
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Review
Do you think that most managers in real life use a
contingency approach to increase their leadership
effectiveness? Discuss.
There are two approaches to this question. Those
organizations that offer leadership training usually
focus on some of the contingency approaches. The
other approach is that a leader’s effectiveness is only
as good as the measures established to measure that
effectiveness. Thus, if the measures don’t focus on
contingency approaches, it’s doubtful that the
leaders will. Often, too, organizations don’t fit the
job to the person. Typically, they do the reverse; fit17-77
© Prentice Hall, 2002
Review
What kinds of campus activities could a full-time
college student do that might lead to the perception
that he or she is a charismatic leader? In pursuing
those activities, what might the student do to
enhance this perception of being charismatic?
It would probably revolve around the student’s
involvement in campus organizations or perhaps
sports teams. To enhance this perception, the student
might champion a cause or get involved with some
controversial issue.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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Review
Do you think trust evolves out of an individual’s personal
characteristics or out of specific situations? Explain.
Followers want leaders who are credible and whom they can
trust. Trust is defined as the belief in the integrity, character,
and ability of the leader. Integrity and character are
definitely personal characteristics.
Research has also identified five dimensions that make up the
concept of trust—and they, too, are personal characteristics.
So, trust must at least start with the personal characteristics
of the individual. However, how the individual leads in
particular situations will increase or diminish the trust that
followers have initially placed in the leader.
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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