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CHINA: 1911-76
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The Battle for the Soul of China
The Struggle Between the Nationalists and the Communists
(1911 – 1949)
Featuring: Chiang KaiShek: Nationalist leader
Starring: Mao Zedong:
Communist leader
China’s Last Emperor
In 1908, the Dowager Empress
Cixi died. Shortly beforehand she
had appointed her three-year old
nephew Puyi as emperor.
Three years later, the 1911
Nationalist Revolution was
launched, and Puyi was forced to
yield power to the new Nationalist
government.
The Life of Puyi
In 1931 Puyi became puppet emperor of
Japanese “Manchukuo”. After the Communist
victory Puyi was struggled against as a war
criminal. He died of unknown causes in 1967
The Nationalist Revolution
In 1911, Dr. Sun Yat-Sen, the “Father of
Modern China” led the Nationalist Revolution
that ended 4,000 years of dynastic rule.
Sun’s goal was to replace the monarchy with a
progressive Western style government and
modern industry. The decades before the
revolution had witnessed a call for an end to
the Confucian examination system and
modern reforms.
Sun’s revolution was organized around the
“Three People’s Principles”
Nationalism (unity of the nation)
Democracy (division of government)
Livelihood (progressive industry and
education)
Challenges faced by the New
Republic (1911-49)
While 1911–1949 is often
referred to as the Republican,
Nationalist, or Guomindang
(GMD) period, Sun and his
successor – Chiang Kai-Shek,
were forced to contend with
the power of warlords, and
the communists led by Mao
Zedong.
Worse still, Japan occupied
much of China during WWII
thus further fragmenting the
nation.
Founding of the Chinese
Communist Party (CCP) / Rift
with the Nationalists
The Chinese Communist Party (CCP)
was founded in 1921. Their goal was
to establish a classless society,
whereby society’s resources were
shared equally.
From the beginning there was friction
between Nationalists led by Chiang
Kai-Shek and the Communists led by
Mao Zedong.
From 1926-28 the their armies allied
during the Northern Expedition to
defeat the warlords in. But in time,
mutual distrust led to renewed
hostilities between the groups.
Capitalism – economic system that
promotes competition within the market
place. Characterized by private
ownership of property and emergence of
different social classes.
Communism – economic system that
seeks to share the resources of society
equally. Characterized by the absence of
private property, and state ownership of
major industries.
The Long March 1934-36
Due to a series of “extermination
campaigns”, by 1934, Chiang KaiShek had eliminated all of the
Communist strongholds but the
Jiangxi region of southeastern
China.
Aware of an impending attack, the
Red Army broke west and later
north to the city of Yanan on an
epic journey that changed the
course of China’s history.
For two years the Red Army – led
by Mao Zedong - evaded pursuing
Nationalists (KMT), encountered
minority peoples and overcame
harsh landscapes. Some 100,000
began the journey, less than
10,000 survived
Japan Occupies China
In 1931 Japan took Manchuria. They
installed the last Qing emperor, Puyi
as “puppet emperor”.
In 1937, Japan moved southward,
taking Beijing and Kaifeng. For
defensive purposes, Chiang ordered
the destruction of the Yellow River
levees, which killed thousands.
Japan launched aerial bombardments
of Shanghai and executions and
assaults at Nanjing. Chiang and his
Nationalist army withdrew inland to
Chongqing. The Red Army continued
to use Yanan as a base.
The U.S. atomic bombing of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August
1945 ended Japan’s war effort.
The Chinese Civil War
1946-49
After Japan’s surrender, China’s
Nationalist (KMT) and
Communist forces resumed their
struggle. The U.S. which had
supported the Nationalists tried
to broker a peace agreement.
The Communists solidified
control in the northeast and later
the rest of China.
On Oct. 1, 1949 Chiang KaiShek’s Nationalist government
and soldiers fled to Taiwan.
To Live (“Huozhe”)
Directed by Fifth Generation filmmaker
Zhang Yimou, and produced by Shanghai
Film Studio in 1994. The film is based on
the novel To Live by Hua Yu.
Initially banned by Chinese State
Administration of Radio, Film and
Television. The film debuted at the 1994
New York Film Festival, and took awards
at the Cannes Film Festival that year.
Characters
Fugui (Ge You) – Father and Gambler
Jiazhen (Gong Li) - Wife of Fugui
Fengxia - daughter
Youqing - son
Chunsheng – Fugui’s friend/ troupe partner
Long’er – man Fugui loses family home to
Mr. Niu – village cadre
Wang Erxi – soon to be son-in-law
“Liberation”
On Oct. 2, 1949 Mao
Zedong proclaimed the
People’s Republic of
China.
Why does the PRC refer
to as “liberation”?
Land and Economic Reform
Upon victory, the PRC began the
process of land redistribution,
whereby land was taken from
landlords and redistributed to
peasants.
Some 2 million landlords were
killed in the process. Eventually,
all land was collectivized and
nationalized. (See Morton, p. 206)
Question – Why might early PRC
policies have been met with
approval?
Old Ways of Thinking
Mao’s vision of a new China
went beyond economic
change. He sought social
change as well.
Social reforms introduced by
the new government included
attacks on the “Four Olds” –
Old ideas, old habits, old
customs and old ways of
thinking.
Question: Why might
Confucianism or Buddhism
have come under attack?
“Holding Up Half the Sky”
Mao had always maintained
the women were the equal of
men. In 1950, the Party
approved the Marriage and
Reform law which banned
arranged marriages, allowed
women to divorce and inherit
property.
The PRC also took major
steps to abolish prostitution
and opium usage.
Reconstitution of the
Motherland
The years of Nationalist
rule had seen the
awakening of
nationalism in Tibet and
Xinjiang.
The PLA invaded
Xinjiang (East
Turkestan) in 1949, and
“liberated” Tibet in 1950,
adding both regions to
the new PRC.
The Korean War
From 1950-53 a see-saw battle
was fought over the Korean
peninsula between South Korean
and American soldiers on one
side and North Korean and
Communist Chinese forces on the
other side.
The entrance of Chinese PLA
forces changed the dynamic in
east Asia, and quieted
speculation about the fortitude of
the People’s Republic of China.
After a see-saw battle, the Korean
peninsula was divided at the 38th
parallel and remains so today.
Ongoing Campaigns
In time, Mao’s rule was characterized by a
wave of political campaigns.
Some such as the Three Anti’s (corruption,
waste and bureaucracy), and the Five Anti’s
(bribery, tax default, stealing state property,
cheating and benefiting from state secrets)
were purported to rectify corruptive practices
lingering from the Nationalist period.
In 1956 Mao launched the Hundred Flowers
Movement. Confident in the successes of the
young PRC, he initially welcomed criticisms of
the government. Soon however, hundreds of
intellectuals who had spoke out were
persecuted.
The post- Hundred Flowers crackdown
became known as the Anti-Rightist campaign.
Language as a Tool
The communists drew upon a new
vocabulary: comrades,
motherland, masses, struggle
sessions, self-criticisms.
Labeling and categorizing took on
high value. While the designation
of one as “peasant” or
“revolutionary” could reap rewards,
classification as a reactionary,
counterrevolutionary, intellectual,
rightist, landlord, feudal minded,
foreign imperialist or foreign
collaborator could lead to ruin.
Also damaging was the bloodline
theory of guilt – to be related to an
“enemy”.
The Great Leap Forward 1958-61
The Masses Can Do Anything
After a successful five year plan from
1953-58 that saw vast improvements in
agricultural output, Mao and the Party
launched The Great Leap Forward in
1958. Its goal was for China to modernize
its agricultural system and to match the
steel production of Britain and the U.S.
Implementation strategies included the
replacement of small farms with people’s
communes (communal farms, kitchens)
under the direction of a district cadre and
the creation of “backyard furnaces”.
Poor planning unrealistic expectations led
to as many as 30 million deaths.
Afterwards, Mao was forced to yield much
power. (Morton p. 213)
Comeback of Mao
Mao lost some power after
the Great Leap Forward, but
a personality cult –
coordinated by Lin Biao and
Mao’s wife Jiang Qing grew around him in the early
1960’s.
Members of the PLA
(People’s Liberation Army)
and children were required
to study the Little Red Book,
or “Quotations of Chairman
Mao”, compiled by Lin Biao
who Mao eventually
appointed as defense
minister.
The Cultural Revolution
“To Rebel Is Justified”
“Revolution is not a dinner party”
“The Tall Tree is Crushed by the Wind”
Quotations by Chairman Mao
From 1966-76 Mao and supporters launched
the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution.
Initially, the campaign was intended to rid
China of counterrevolutionary elements,
particularly artists and intellectuals. In time it
turned into an unrestrained campaign that led
to attacks on countless individuals from all
walks of life for the pettiest of crimes. Young
Red Guards carried out attack after attack,
and millions were subjected to struggle
sessions, self-criticisms and forced labor.
Ultimately Mao’s main political rivals were
targeted. (Good account in Morton, p. 216)
“The Lost Generation”
During the Cultural Revolution
education was severely
disrupted. Manual work was
held more important, and the
works of Chairman Mao were
deemed all that was
necessary for education.
From 1966-70 all universities
were closed. Millions of
students were sent to the
countryside to receive
“peasant education”. In 1973,
a college-entrance exam was
reinstituted, mainly for
students with Party
connections. (See Spence p. 603)
The “Opening of
China”
In 1971 the UN General
Assembly voted to take
“China’s seat” from Taiwan
and give it to the PRC.
This swap was followed by
“ping pong diplomacy”
between the U.S. and
China and U.S. President
Nixon’s famous 1972 visit
to China. Mutual distrust of
the USSR, and badly
needed oil drilling
technology were motivating
factors in the normalization
of relations. In 1978, the
U.S. formally recognized
the PRC.