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Trace Minerals
Module 5.5
Trace Minerals
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Iron
Iodine
Zinc
Fluoride
Selenium
Manganese
Molybdenum
Chromium
Copper
Cobalt
• A component of hemoglobin,
protein that carries oxygen in
the blood and myoglobin,
protein that makes oxygen
available for the muscle.
– Oxygen binds to iron
transporting oxygen from
lungs to tissues.
– Most of the iron in the body
is part of hemoglobin.
• Part of many other proteins and cytochrome enzymes (such as
those required for electron transport in ATP production as well
as in liver detoxification)
• Other enzymes (flavoproteins)
Iron
Synthesis
 Ingested as ferric ion Fe3+ -- In stomach converted to ferrous ion
Fe2+ by hydrochloric acid (HCl) –increases iron’s surface area
 Fe2+ is the form that enters intestinal cells
Iron
 Iron storage proteins (transferrin, lactoferrin, and ferritin).
 Transferrin –carrier protein-transports iron from intestines to
tissues
 Lactoferrin is one of the components of the immune system of
the body; it has antimicrobial activity. Primary role is to
sequester free iron, which removes essential substances
required for bacterial growth. Part of the transferrin family of
proteins transporters. Found in tears, saliva, nasal secretions
o Lactoferrin can be purified from milk. Human colostrum ("first
milk“ –first substance produced in breastmilk) has the highest
concentration, followed by human milk, then cow milk
 Ferritin- storage form of iron in liver, bone marrow, spleen
o Hemosiderin is an insoluble iron storage compound produced
by the body when iron exceeds the storage capacity of ferritin
 The most common form of iron overload is hemochromatosis.
Can result in heart damage, cirrhosis -Treated by blood letting Deficiencies occur due to:
Aging - decreased HCl production
Malnutrition: limited access, foods low in iron
Iron Absorption
• Iron comes in 2 forms
– heme -Better absorption; found in meats, poultry, and fish
– nonheme - plant and animal sources
Iron Absorption depends on
 Body’s iron status
 GI function
 Amount and type (Heme or non-heme)
Iron absorption enhancers/inhibitors
– Enhancers: Vitamin C, HCl
– Inhibitors
– Tannins (black tea, cola, coffee, chocolate, and red wine)
– Phytates (whole grains and legumes)
– Fiber—resulting in increased transit time of foods through
intestines.
– Zinc (competes for absorption)
– Calcium (in some cases)
Iron (Fe)
Deficiency & Toxicity
Deficiency
(<66% of DRI)
Approx. <5-12 mg/day
Adequacy
DRI: 8-18 mg/day
RDI: 18 mg
Toxicity
(>UL)
>45 mg/day
Microcytic hypochromic
anemia
• Central Nervous
System: mental
apathy, cold, dizzy,
irritable, headache
• Neuro-Musccular:
weakness and
fatigue
• Skin: pallor
(paleness)
Normal functioning
of hemoglobin,
myoglobin,
cytochromes,
enzymes, and iron
storage proteins.
Unlikely from food. Most
likely from supplements and
a genetic disorder
Cardio-Vascular: damages
the cardiovascular system
Central Nervous System:
damages the central
nervous system
GI System: constipation,
nausea, vomiting, and
diarrhea
Skin: bronze/gray skin color
Other: damages the renal
system and the liver
Vegetarians have
1.8 times higher
DRI value.
Adult deficient, adequate,
toxic values
Anemia
Microcytic
Normal
Macrocytic
Hemolytic
Sickle Cell
#1 deficiency worldwide deficiency
– Iron-deficiency anemia: a reduction of the # and size
(microcyctic) of red blood cells and a loss of their color
(hypochromic) because of iron deficiency.
• Estimated 80% of the world’s population may be iron deficient
and 30% suffer from iron deficiency anemia.
Anemia can be caused by:
– Shortage or abnormality of Red Blood Cells (RBC’s)
compromising O2 delivery.
– Nutrient Deficiencies: Iron (Fe), vitamin E, vitamin B12, folate. Etc.
• Inadequate intake
• Blood loss & Parasitic infection for Fe
• Signs & Symptoms of Anemia are:
• Muscular Weakness, Tiredness/fatigue
• Mental Apathy & Headache
• Paleness/Pallor
Iron: Food Sources
• Heme (10-20% absorbed): clams, oysters, organ meats, and red
muscle meats - mollusks [155% DV], liver [129% DV]
• Nonheme (2-5% absorbed): highly fortified cereals, soybeans, white
beans, black-strap molasses
• pumpkin seeds [83% DV], and spinach, Dark Chocolate and Cocoa
Powder [97% DV]
Iodine Functions
• Essential component of the thyroid hormones thyroxine (T4)
and triiodothyronine (T3).
– Thyroxine regulates body temperature, metabolic rate
• Regulates the metabolic rate and influences the function of
brain, muscles, heart, the pituitary gland, reproduction,
growth, and kidneys.
• Controls the rate at which cells use oxygen and energy.
• More than ½ of the iodine in the body is found in the
thyroid gland.
• Iodized salt preventative measure to prevent deficiency
diseases.
– Goiter
– Cretinism –mother has inadequate iodine during
pregnancy. Condition is NOT reversible.
Cretinism is a
condition of severely
stunted physical and
mental growth due to
untreated congenital
(existing at birth)
deficiency of thyroid
hormones.
Goiter due to iodine
deficiency resulting
in hypothyroidsm
Iodine (I)
Deficiency & Toxicity
Deficiency
Adequacy
Toxicity
(<66% of DRI)
Approx. <100 μg/day
DRI: 150 μg/day
RDI: 150 μg
(>UL)
>1,100 μg/day
Hypothyroidism
Other: Cretinism
(growth and
developmental
abnormalities and
mental retardation
in utero and in
children), goiter,
reduced metabolic
rate
Normal thyroid,
brain, organ, and
metabolic
Adult deficient,
adequate, toxic values
Hypothyroidism
acute toxicity:
Weak pulse and cardiac
irritability, coma,
burning of the mouth,
throat, and stomach,
abdominal pain, fever,
nausea, vomiting, and
diarrhea, and cyanosis
chronic toxicity
Goiter, hypothyroidism,
thyroiditis, sensitivity
reactions, thyroid cancer
Iodine in Foods
• Seafood.
• Iodized salt.
– Processed foods containing iodized salt provide iodine.
• Iodine is found in the soil where sea water once covered the
earth so plants grown in this soil contain some iodine.
• In areas that do not have iodine in the soil, the development of
iodine deficiency has been very common.
Adult DRI:
150 μg/day
Zinc
Found in every cell of the body and present in numerous enzymatic
reactions; involved in the functioning of over 300 different enzymes
– Cell multiplication and growth (DNA), wound healing (skin
regeneration), immunity, thyroid, taste
• Zinc throat lozenges shown to help with common cold; does not
pose toxicity risks when used for the duration of the cold.
• Zinc oxide in baby powder, calamine lotion, sunscreen
– Necessary for the formation of red blood cells
– Metabolism of protein, carbohydrate, fat and alcohol
– Required for insulin synthesis, storage, and release.
– Disposal of free radicals
– Need in small amounts to absorb folate;
large amounts inhibit absorption
– Calcium and phytates inhibit zinc absorption
– Zinc Inhibits copper and iron absorption
• Deficiency: thought to be associated with growth
underdevelopment resulting in dwarfism
http://www.garyparker.com/users/GaryParker
3765/images/GaryParker3765759083.jpg
Zinc (Zn)
Deficiency & Toxicity
Deficiency
Adequacy
Toxicity
(<66% of DRI)
Approx. <5-7 mg/day
DRI: 8-11 mg/day
RDI: 15 mg
(>UL)
>40 mg/day
• GI System: decreased
taste acuity, impaired
appetite, diarrhea
• Skin: acrodermatitis
enteropathica, poor
wound healing, eye
and skin lesions
• Other: retarded growth
and delayed sexual
maturation, impotence,
hair loss
Normal catalytic,
structural, and
regulatory functions.
Vegetarians have
1.5 times higher
DRI value.
Adult deficient,
adequate, toxic
values
• Cardio-Vascular:
decreased HDL cholesterol
• Central Nervous System:
headache
• GI System: loss of appetite,
upper gastrointestinal pain,
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea,
and abdominal cramps
• Immunity: altered and
suppressed immunity
• Other: reduced copper
status
Zinc in Foods
• Shellfish (not all seafood)
• Meats (especially red meats) & organ meats.
• Whole grains and some fortified cereals, but it is not as
bioavailable for the body.
• Pumpkin seeds, cocoa powder, squash seeds
Adult DRI:
8-11 mg/day
Fluoride
• Bone & tooth calcification
• Only a trace amount is found in the
body
– Stimulates new bone formation
– Prevents dental caries (cavities).
– Hardens tooth enamel and
stabilizes bone mineral structure.
– Makes bones of older individuals
more resistant to bone loss
(osteoporosis)
• SOURCES: Drinking water is the
usual supply of fluoride; sardines,
canned salmon, TEA
• Calcium rich foods reduce the
bioavailability of fluoride
• Fluorosis - mottled enamel,
discoloration of the teeth from
ingestion of too much fluoride during
tooth development.
Fluoride (F)
Deficiency & Toxicity
Deficiency
Adequacy
Toxicity
(<66% of DRI)
Approx. <2-2.6 mg/day
DRI: 3-4 mg/day
RDI: none
(>UL)
>10 mg/day
Normal bone and
tooth health.
Formation of
decay-resistant
fluorhydroxyapatite
Acute toxicity: cardiac
arrhythmias, seizures and
coma, nausea, vomiting,
diarrhea, abdominal pain, and
excessive salivation
Chronic Toxicity: Fluorosis
(tooth & skeletal), stiffness or
pain in the joints,
osteosclerosis,
hypercalcification, muscle
wasting, and neurological
defects
Tooth decay
Adult deficient, adequate, toxic values
Selenium
 Selenium is a component of the antioxidant enzymes glutathione
peroxidase and can substitute for vitamin E in some of that
vitamin’s antioxidant activities.
 Role in the efficient function of the thyroid gland
• Reduction-oxidation (redox) (accepting and releasing of electrons
with such substances as vitamin C as well as other molecules
 Symptoms of selenium deficiency include muscular discomfort
and weakness. Can lead to Keshan disease, which affects the
function of the heart muscle and can lead to cardiac arrest
and pulmonary edema. Keshan disease is a potentially fatal
form of cardiomyopathy (disease of the heart muscle)
 There may be a connection, still being researched, between diets
low in selenium and higher incidences of cancer.
 For some time it was proposed that selenium could decrease the
risk for some forms of prostate cancer. More recent research
contraindicates the original supposition and finds selenium
to actually increase risk.
Selenium (Se)
Deficiency & Toxicity
Deficiency
Adequacy
Toxicity
(<66% of DRI)
Approx. <36 µg/day
DRI: 55 µg/day
RDI: 70 µg
(>UL)
>400 µg/day
Keshan disease
Cardio-Vascular:
cardiomyopathy
Normal
selenoproteins,
antioxidant, vitamin
C redox functioning
Selenosis
Central Nervous
System: fatigue,
irritability, and nervous
system abnormalities
GI System: GI distress,
garlic breath odor
Skin: skin rash
Other: hair and nail
brittleness and loss
Adult deficient, adequate, toxic values
Selenium in Foods
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Meat, seafood- tuna, oysters
Dairy as selenomethionine or selenocysteine
Brazil nuts [2739 % DV]
Plant foods (grains, fruits, vegetables), depending on soil
selenium content.
http://www.healthaliciousn
ess.com/articles/foodshigh-in-selenium.php
Adult DRI:
55 μg/day
Manganese Functions
• Manganese is an important metal for human health, necessary
for development, metabolism, and the antioxidant system.
• Bone formation
• Amino acid, cholesterol, and carbohydrate metabolism.
• Cofactors for a large variety of enzymes
– Manganese enzymes are particularly essential in
detoxification of superoxide free radicals
– Required for and/or activates several metalloenzymes.
 Helps the body utilize biotin, thiamin, Vitamin C, and choline.
Necessary for bone health.
 Aids in the formation of thyroxin – thyroid hormone
Toxicity: Excessive exposure or intake may lead to a condition
known as manganism, a neurodegenerative disorder that causing
neuronal death and symptoms similar to Parkinson's disease
• Manganese poisoning has been linked to impaired motor skills
and cognitive disorder
Manganese (Mn)
Deficiency & Toxicity
Deficiency
Adequacy
Toxicity
(<66% of DRI)
Approx. <1.2-1.5 mg/day
DRI: 1.8-2.3 mg/day
RDI: 2 mg
(>UL)
>11 mg/day
• Cardio-Vascular:
reduced blood
cholesterol levels
• Central Nervous
System: altered mood
and increased pain (in
reproductively capable
women)
• Skin: scaly reddermatitis
Normal bone
formation and
amino acid,
cholesterol, and
carbohydrate
metabolism
Central Nervous
System: effects
similar to Parkinson’s
disease
Neuro-Musccular:
tremors, rigidity of
limbs and truck, slow
gait and lack of
coordination
Adult deficient, adequate, toxic values
Manganese in Foods
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Grains and grain products (bread)
Hazelnuts [278% DV]
Mussels [340% DV]
Pumpkin seeds [227%]
Adult DRI:
1.8-2.3 mg/day
Molybdenum Functions
• As a dietary mineral, molybdenum is part of sulfite oxidase.
Sulfite oxidase break down sulfites that are present in many
chemically preserved foods as well as specific food proteins. In
general
– Sulfur is critical in our ability to detoxify unwanted
contaminants, and many contaminants in our food cannot
be eliminated from our body without the help of sulfur.
– difficult for the human body to break down chemically
preserved foods resulting in a build-up of harmful toxins.
– Molybdenum helps break down sulfites in order to reduce
toxic build-up and promote overall healthy body function.
• The most commonly associated function of molybdenum is its
role in the production of uric acid a component of nucleic
acids (DNA and RNA)
• Has been shown to be required for the activity of at least seven
enzymes in our body, and numerous body systems rely on
these enzymes for support.
• Sources: Legumes, Grain products, Nuts
Molybdenum (Mn)
Deficiency & Toxicity
Deficiency
Adequacy
Toxicity
(<66% of DRI)
Approx. <30 µg/day
DRI: 45 µg/day
RDI: 75 µg
(>UL)
>2000 µg/day
Poorly documented in
humans
Symptoms
documented with
specific genetic defect
and Chron’s disease
Normal
catabolism of
sulfur containing
amino acids and
some RNA
compounds
Poorly documented in
humans
High intakes rapidly
excreted in the urine
Cu deficiency/dysfunction
may increase risk of Mn
toxicity
Adult deficient, adequate, toxic values
Chromium
 Chromium used for improving blood sugar control in people
with prediabetes, type 1 and type 2 diabetes, and high blood
sugar due to taking steroids.
– Potentiates the action of insulin: Aids hormone insulin to
take up glucose from cells and break it down for energy.
 May improve glucose tolerance
• Used for depression, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), lowering
“bad” cholesterol, and raising “good” cholesterol in people taking
heart medications called beta blockers.
 Use for body conditioning including weight loss, increasing
muscle, and decreasing body fat. Known to improve athletic
performance and to increase energy.
 Cooking in stainless steel can increase chromium content in
food.
• As many as 90% of American diets are low in chromium, but
it’s rare to be truly deficient in chromium.
– The elderly, people who do a lot of strenuous exercise, those
who eat a lot of sugary foods, and pregnant women are
most likely to be deficient in chromium.
Chromium (Cr)
Deficiency & Toxicity
Deficiency
Adequacy
Toxicity
(<66% of DRI)
Approx. <17-23 mg/day
DRI: 25-35 µg/day
RDI: 120 µg
(UL is Not Established)
Poorly documented in
humans
Three patients lacking
chromium in their TPN
solution experienced
weight loss, peripheral
neuropathy, and
increased free fatty acid
oxidation
Normal insulin
activity
Poorly documented in
humans
Individuals with
kidney and liver
disease may be more
susceptible to
chromium toxicity
Adult deficient, adequate, toxic values
Chromium:
Food Sources
• Broccoli, grape juice, barley, oats
• whole-grain breads and cereals, molasses,
spices, and some bran cereals.
• Brewer's yeast, lean meats (especially
processed meats), cheeses, pork kidney,
• meats, vegetable oils
– Whole grains especially the bran component
• Some beers
• French wines
Copper
• Cofactor for antioxidant enzymes and in the electron
transport chain.
• Involved in the synthesis of melanin (pigment) in the skin –
conversion of tyrosine to melanin
• Utilized in synthesis of collagen and elastin (connective
tissue proteins)
• A component of the enzyme ceruloplasmin, which is that
helps to convert ferrous iron to ferric iron for transport as
transferrin.
• Helps maintain neurochemical balance and inactivates
histamine release during allergic reactions.
• Deficiency leads to increased incidents of infection; poor
formation of collagen fibers resulting in skeletal deformities
• Inhibited by zinc, phytates, iron, vitamin C, antacids
Copper (C)
Deficiency & Toxicity
Deficiency
Adequacy
Toxicity
(<66% of DRI)
Approx. <600 µg/day
DRI: 900 µg/day
RDI: 2,000 µg (2 mg)
(>UL)
>10,000 µg/day
Is rare in adults, has
occurred in prematurely
born infants
Bone & tooth:
osteoporosis in infants
and children
Cardio-Vascular:
normocytic hypochromic
anemia
Immunity: leukopenia and
neutropenia
Inherited syndrome called
Menkes’ disease
Normal antioxidant
enzymes, electron
transport chain,
connective tissue,
iron oxidation,
neurochemical
balance, and
histamine
inactivation function
Adult deficient, adequate,
toxic values
Is low but may occur
from supplements and
some beverages and
drinking water
GI System: abdominal
pain, cramps, nausea,
diarrhea, and vomiting
Genetic, Wilson's
disease, inability to
excrete copper causes
liver damage
Copper: Food Sources
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Organ meats, Seafood
Nuts & seeds
Whole grains, Wheat bran
Cocoa
Copper in Foods
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Organ meats, Seafood
Nuts & sesame seeds
Whole grains, Wheat bran
Cocoa
Adult DRI:
900 μg/day
Cobalt
• Cobalt is the central component vitamin B12 (cobalamin).
– It is indicated that cobalt helps with repair of the myelin
sheath (B12)
• It is not easily assimilated in the body and is stored in
red blood cells, liver, plasma, spleen, kidney, and
pancreas.
– Has been thought to be an essential element required
for the normal functioning of the pancreas.
• Promotes RBC formation.
• Activates enzymes, replaces zinc in some enzymes.
• Cobalt is needed for proper assimilation of iron.
• Healthy foods that contain cobalt include: all healthy animal
foods (organic eggs, wild fish, free range meat)
•