Download Matlin, Cognition, 7e, Chapter 5: Long

Cognition
Chapter 5
Long-Term Memory
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Introduction
long-term memory—large capacity; memory for
experiences and information accumulated over a
lifetime
episodic memory—your memories for events that
happened to you
semantic memory—organized knowledge about the
world
procedural memory—knowledge about how to do
something
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Introduction
encoding—initial acquisition of information
retrieval—locating information in storage and
accessing that information
autobiographical memory—memory for events and
topics related to your own everyday life
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term
Memory
Levels of Processing
Craik and Lockhart (1972)
levels-of-processing/depth-of-processing
approach—argues that deep, meaningful kinds of
information processing lead to more permanent
retention than shallow, sensory kinds of processing
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term
Memory
Levels of Processing
Levels of Processing and Memory for General
Material
Craik and Tulving (1975)—meaning vs. physical
appearance
Distinctiveness
Elaboration
deep processing also enhances memory for faces
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term
Memory
Levels of Processing
Levels of Processing and the Self-Reference
Effect
self-reference effect
1. Representative research
Rogers and coauthors (1977)—visual, acoustic, semantic,
self-reference
positive vs. negative instances
across age groups, instructions, stimuli
meta-analysis technique
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term
Memory
Levels of Processing
Levels of Processing and the Self-Reference
Effect
2. Participants' failure to follow instructions
Foley and coauthors (1999)
compare different types of mental image
instructions vs. what students actually used
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Participants Failure to
Follow Instructions
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term
Memory
Levels of Processing
Levels of Processing and the Self-Reference
Effect
3. Factors responsible for the self-reference effect
• the self produces a rich set of cues
• self-reference instructions encourage people to consider
how their personal traits are related to one another
• you rehearse material more frequently if it is associated
with yourself
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term
Memory
The Effects of Context: Encoding
Specificity
encoding specificity principle—recall is better if the
retrieval context is similar to the encoding context
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term
Memory
The Effects of Context: Encoding
Specificity
Research on Encoding Specificity
Marian and Fausey (2006)—read stories in English
and Spanish; questions about the stories in matched
or mismatched languages
gender of voice of reader and questioner
present context vs. other contexts
real life vs. laboratory
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Encoding Specificity
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term
Memory
The Effects of Context: Encoding
Specificity
Research on Encoding Specificity
1. Different kinds of memory tasks
recall vs. recognition
encoding specificity effect is most likely to occur in memory
tasks that
• assess your recall
• use real-life incidents
• examine events that happened long ago
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term
Memory
The Effects of Context: Encoding
Specificity
Research on Encoding Specificity
2. Physical versus mental context
feel may be more important than look
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term
Memory
The Effects of Context: Encoding
Specificity
Levels of Processing and Encoding
Specificity
similarity between encoding and retrieval conditions
encoding specificity can override levels of processing
To determine how to store some information, you'll
need to figure out the characteristics of the retrieval
task
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term
Memory
Emotions, Mood, and Memory
emotion
mood
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term
Memory
Emotions, Mood, and Memory
Memory for Items Differing in Emotion
Pollyanna Principle
1. More accurate recall for pleasant items
Matlin & Stang (1978); Balch (2006)
learn lists of words—pleasant, neutral, unpleasant
recall after delay
pleasant items recalled significantly more accurately than
unpleasant items; neutral items recalled least accurately
memory for events
memory for near-accidents
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term
Memory
Emotions, Mood, and Memory
Memory for Items Differing in Emotion
2. More accurate recall for neutral stimuli associated
with pleasant stimuli
Bushman (1998)—media violence and commercials
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term
Memory
Emotions, Mood, and Memory
Memory for Items Differing in Emotion
3. Over time, unpleasant memories fade faster
Walker and coauthors (1997)
personal events recorded and rated for pleasantness and
intensity
positivity effect—people tend to rate past events more
positively with the passage of time
age
depression
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term
Memory
Emotions, Mood, and Memory
Mood Congruence
mood congruence—you recall material more
accurately if it is congruent with your current mood
Murray and colleagues (1999)—tendency towards
depression and recall of positive/negative trait words
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Mood Congruence
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term
Memory
Individual Differences: Social Goals and
Memory
social goals
approach social goals
avoidance social goals
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Encoding in Long-Term
Memory
Individual Differences: Social Goals and
Memory
Strachman and Gable (2006)
story about interpersonal relationships, recall of
positive/neutral/negative statements from the story
overall number of items recalled
social goal type was related to whether statements
were recalled as more positive or more negative
than they actually were
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Retrieval in Long-Term
Memory
Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks
Definitions and Examples
Explicit Memory Tasks
recall
recognition
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Retrieval in Long-Term
Memory
Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks
Definitions and Examples
Implicit Memory Tasks—task does not directly ask
for either recall or recognition; shows the effects of
previous experience when we are not making a
conscious effort to remember
word completion
repetition priming—recent exposure to a word increases
the likelihood that you'll think of this particular word, when
you are given a cue that could evoke many different words
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Retrieval in Long-Term
Memory
Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks
Research with Normal Adults
material not remembered on explicit memory task may
be remembered when tested on an implicit memory
task
anesthesia studies
dissociation
levels of processing and explicit/implicit memory tasks
proactive interference
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Retrieval in Long-Term
Memory
Individuals with Amnesia
amnesia
retrograde amnesia—loss of memory for events
that occurred prior to brain damage
anterograde amnesia—loss of memory for
events that have occurred after brain damage
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Retrieval in Long-Term
Memory
Individuals with Amnesia
hippocampus—H.M.
Warrington and Weiskrantz (1970)
presented English words to individuals with
anterograde amnesia and controls
tested with explicit and implicit memory tasks
dissociation
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Retrieval in Long-Term
Memory
Expertise
expertise—consistently exceptional performance in a
particular area
practice more important than inborn skill
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Retrieval in Long-Term
Memory
Expertise
The Context-Specific Nature of Expertise
• strong positive correlation between knowledge
about an area and memory performance in that
area
• more accurate than nonexperts in both recognition
and recall
• immediate and delayed testing
• no difference in general memory skills or
intelligence
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Retrieval in Long-Term
Memory
Expertise
How Do Experts and Novices Differ?
1. Experts possess a well-organized, carefully
learned knowledge structure, which assists them
during both encoding and retrieval.
2. Experts are more likely to reorganize the new
material they must recall, forming meaningful
chunks in which related material is grouped
together.
3. Experts typically have more vivid visual images for
the items they must recall.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Retrieval in Long-Term
Memory
Expertise
How Do Experts and Novices Differ? (continued)
4. Experts work hard to emphasize the
distinctiveness of each stimulus during encoding.
5. Experts rehearse in a different fashion.
6. Experts are better at reconstructing missing
portions of information from material that they
partially remember.
7. Experts are more skilled at predicting the difficulty
of a task and at monitoring their progress on this
task.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Retrieval in Long-Term
Memory
Expertise
Own-Race Bias
own-race bias—people are generally more accurate
in identifying members of their own ethnic group than
members of another ethnic group
expertise
distinctiveness
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Retrieval in Long-Term
Memory
Expertise
Own-Race Bias
Walker and Hewstone (2006)
discrimination task—photos differing along a continuum of
race; 2 photos judged same or different
British high school students, White and South Asian
accuracy of responses
contact hypothesis
age group expertise
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Own-Race Bias
Figure 5.2 Percentage of Accurate Responses in a Discrimination Task, as a
Function of the Ethnic Group of the Student and the Ethnic Group of the Faces.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Autobiographical
Memory
autobiographical memory—memory for events and
issues related to yourself; verbal narrative, imagery,
emotional reactions, procedural information;
measured in terms of accuracy
ecological validity
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Autobiographical
Memory
Characteristics of our memory for life events
1. Although we sometimes make errors, our memory
is often accurate for a variety of information
(Theme 2).
2. When people do make mistakes, they generally
concern peripheral details and specific information
about commonplace events, rather than central
information about important events.
3. Our memories often blend together information; we
actively construct a memory at the time of retrieval.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Autobiographical
Memory
Schemas and Autobiographical Memory
schema—your general knowledge or expectation
distilled from past experiences with an event
or a person
consistency bias—we tend to exaggerate the
consistency between our past feelings and
beliefs and our current viewpoint
Honig (1997)—Chicana garment workers strike
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Autobiographical
Memory
Source Monitoring
source monitoring—the process of trying to
identify the origin of memories and beliefs
Marsh and colleagues (1997)—recognition for
own ideas and someone else's ideas;
recognition vs. generation test
"wishful thinking bias"
source monitoring at a societal level
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Autobiographical
Memory
In Depth: Flashbulb Memories
flashbulb memory—memory for the circumstances in
which you first learned about a very surprising and
emotionally arousing event
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Autobiographical
Memory
In Depth: Flashbulb Memories
The Classic Study
Brown and Kulik (1977)—memories triggered by
important political events; details of location and
people
later studies suggested that people made numerous
errors in recalling details of national events, even
though they claimed that their memories for these
events were very vivid
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Autobiographical
Memory
In Depth: Flashbulb Memories
Memories about September 11, 2001
Talarica and Rubin (2003)
memories of ordinary event vs. "flashbulb memory"
delay before recall
consistent and inconsistent details
confidence
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Flashbulb Memories
Figure 5.3 Average Number of Consistent and Inconsistent Details Reported for a
Flashbulb Event (9/11/2001) and an Ordinary Event, as a Function of the Passage of Time
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Autobiographical
Memory
In Depth: Flashbulb Memories
Memories about September 11, 2001
Pezdek (2003)—proximity to New York City; factual
details vs. autobiographical
rehearsal frequency, distinctiveness, elaboration
accuracy over time
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Autobiographical
Memory
Eyewitness Testimony
questioning the validity of eyewitness testimony
DNA vs. eyewitness testimony
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Autobiographical
Memory
Eyewitness Testimony
The Post-Event Misinformation Effect
post-event misinformation effect—people view an
event, are given misleading information about the
event, mistakenly recall the misleading information
rather than the event itself
retroactive interference
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Autobiographical
Memory
Eyewitness Testimony
The Post-Event Misinformation Effect
Loftus and coauthors (1978)—stop/yield sign
experiment; consistent vs. inconsistent information
faulty source monitoring
constructivist approach to memory
consistency bias
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Post-Event
Misinformation Effect
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Autobiographical
Memory
Eyewitness Testimony
Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness
Testimony
•
People may create memories that are consistent
with their schemas
• People may make errors in source monitoring
• Post-event misinformation may distort people's
recall
plus
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Autobiographical
Memory
Eyewitness Testimony
Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness
Testimony (continued)
• Errors are more likely when there is a long delay
between the original event and the time of the
testimony.
• Errors are more likely if the misinformation is
plausible
• Errors are more likely if there is social pressure
• Errors are more likely if eyewitnesses have been
given positive feedback.
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Autobiographical
Memory
Eyewitness Testimony
The Relationship Between Memory
Confidence and Memory Accuracy
in many situations, participants are almost as
confident about their misinformation-based
memories as they are about their genuinely correct
memories
confidence not strongly correlated with accuracy
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Autobiographical
Memory
Eyewitness Testimony
The Recovered Memory/False Memory
Controversy
1. The two contrasting positions in the controversy
recovered-memory perspective
false-memory perspective
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Autobiographical
Memory
Eyewitness Testimony
The Recovered Memory/False Memory
Controversy
2. The potential for memory errors
autobiographical memory is less than perfect
source monitoring and difficulty recalling whether or not we
actually did something
therapist suggestions
often can't determine accuracy
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Autobiographical
Memory
Eyewitness Testimony
The Recovered Memory/False Memory
Controversy
3. Laboratory evidence of false memory
Roediger and McDermott (1995)—misremembering words on
lists; false-recall, intrusion errors
role of associations
constructing false memories for childhood events
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Autobiographical
Memory
Eyewitness Testimony
The Recovered Memory/False Memory
Controversy
4. Arguments for recovered memory
lab studies lack ecological validity
can't create false memories for very embarrassing events
ER/legal system studies
Freyd and DePrince—betrayal trauma
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5
Autobiographical
Memory
Eyewitness Testimony
The Recovered Memory/False Memory
Controversy
5. Both perspectives are partially correct
some people have truly experienced childhood sexual abuse
and may forget about the abuse for many decades until a
critical event triggers recall;
other people may never have experienced childhood sexual
abuse, but a suggestion about abuse creates a false
memory of experiences that never really occurred;
in other cases, memory for abuse is accurate for years
afterwards
Cognition 7e, Margaret Matlin
Chapter 5