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Name: __________ CHAPTER 26 THE FUTILE SEARCH FOR A NEW STABILITY: EUROPE BETWEEN THE WARS, 1919-1939 CHAPTER OUTLINE 1. An Uncertain Peace: The Search for Security a. The French Policy of Coercion (1919-1924) b. The Hopeful Years (1924-1929) i. The Spirit of Locarno ii. Coexistence with Soviet Russia c. The Great Depression i. Causes ii. Unemployment iii. Social and Political Repercussions 2. The Democratic States a. Great Britain b. France c. The Scandinavian Example d. The United States e. European States and the World: The Colonial Empire i. The Middle East ii. India iii. Africa 3. Retreat from Democracy: The Authoritarian and Totalitarian States a. Fascist Italy i. Impact of World War I ii. The Birth of Fascism iii. Mussolini and the Italian Fascist State b. Hitler and Nazi Germany i. Weimar Germany ii. The Emergence of Adolph Hitler iii. The Rise of the Nazis iv. The Nazi Seizure of Power v. The Nazi State (1933-1939) c. The Soviet Union i. The New Economic Policy ii. The Struggle for Power iii. The Stalinist Era (1929-1939) d. Authoritarianism in Eastern Europe e. Dictatorship in the Iberian Peninsula i. The Spanish Civil War ii. The Franco Regime iii. Portugal 4. The Expansion of Mass Culture and Mass Leisure a. Radio and Movies b. Mass Leisure i. Sports ii. Tourism iii. Organized Mass Leisure in Italy and Germany 5. Cultural and Intellectual Trends in the Interwar Years a. Nightmares and New Visions: Art and Music i. The Dada Movement ii. Surrealism iii. Functionalism in Modern Architecture iv. A Popular Audience v. Art in Totalitarian Regimes vi. A New Style in Music b. The Search for the Unconscious in Literature c. The Unconscious in Psychology: Carl Jung d. The “Heroic Age of Physics” 6. Conclusion CHAPTER SUMMARY The treaties ending World War I did not assure peace as the League of Nations had little power. France, fearing Germany, formed the Little Entente with the militarily weak states of Eastern Europe. Occupying the Ruhr when Germany failed to pay reparations, France gained little other than a disastrous fall in the German mark. By 1924, the Dawes Plan established a realistic reparations schedule. The Treaty of Locarno made permanent Germany’s western borders, but not the east. Germany joined the League, and in 1928, sixty-three nations signed the Kellogg-Briand pact, renouncing war, but it lacked any enforcement provisions. European prosperity, largely the result of American loans and investments, ended with the Great Depression. The economist John Maynard Keynes favored increased government spending and deficit financing rather than deflation and balanced budgets, but had little support. Britain’s unemployment remained at 10 percent during the 1920s and rose rapidly in the depression. France was governed, or ungoverned, by frequent coalition governments; its far-right was attracted to fascism and many on the left by Soviet Marxism. The United States’ New Deal was more successful in providing relief than in recovery, and unemployment remained high until World War II. Totalitarian governments, which required the active commitment of their citizens, came power in Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union. Italian fascism resulted from Italy’s losses in the Great War, economic failure, and incompetent politicians. In 1919, Benito Mussolini organized the Fascio di Combattimento. Threatening “to march on Rome,” he was chosen prime minister in 1922. Legal due process was abandoned and rival parties were outlawed, but totalitarianism in Italy was never as effective as in Nazi Germany or Soviet Russia. In Germany, the depression brought the political extremes to the forefront. Adolph Hitler headed the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazis). A powerful orator, Hitler published his beliefs in Mein Kampf, and created a private army of storm troopers (SA), but it was not until the depression that the Nazis received wide support. Hitler became chancellor in 1933, and a compliant Reichstag passed the Enabling Act, giving him dictatorial power. In his quest to dominate Europe, Hitler rearmed Germany, abolished labor unions, and created a new terrorist police force, the SS. The Nuremberg laws excluded Jews from citizenship, and in the 1938 Kristallnacht, Jewish businesses and synagogues were burned and Jews beaten and killed. After Lenin’s death in 1924, Joseph Stalin assumed leadership in the Soviet Union. In 1928, he announced his first five-year plan to turn the Soviet Union into an industrial society by emphasizing oil and coal production and steel manufacturing. Giant collective farms were created, and in the process 10 million lives were lost. Stalin’s opponents were sent to Siberia, sentenced to labor camps, or liquidated. With the exception of Czechoslovakia, authoritarian governments appeared in eastern Europe as well as in Portugal and Spain. In the Spanish Civil War, the fascist states aided Francisco Franco and the Soviet Union backed the Popular Front. Radio and movies become widely popular, as did professional sports. Automobiles and trains made travel accessible to all. Issues of sexuality became more public and psychology became more popular. In art, Dada focused upon the absurd and Surrealism upon the unconscious. The unconscious “stream of consciousness” technique was used in the novels of James Joyce and Virginia Woolf. The Bauhaus movement emphasized the functional in architecture. It was also the “the heroic age of physics.” The discovery of subatomic particles indicated that splitting the atom could release massive energies, and Werner Heisenberg’s “uncertainty principle” had implications far beyond the study of physics. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS FOR THE PRIMARY SOURCES (BOXED DOCUMENTS) 1. “The Great Depression: Unemployed and Homeless in Germany”: Discuss the plight of the homeless in Germany in 1932. To what does the writer compare to the impact and effects of the depression? How did the growing misery of many ordinary Germans promote the rise of extremist political parties like the Nazis and facilitate seizure of political power in Germany by racist and anti-democratic forces? Would Hitler have come to power if prosperity had continued in Weimar Germany? (page 754) 2. “The Struggles of a Democracy: Unemployment and Slums in Great Britain”: What economic and social problems are described in these documents? What might be the psychological or emotional impact on someone who has held a job for decades and now is out of work with no prospect of gaining employment again? What do these pieces tell you about the quality of life and politics in Great Britain during the inter-war years? (page 755) 3. “The Voice of Italian Fascism”: Based on this article, for Mussolini, what were the basic principles of Italian Fascism? What movements and ideologies does Mussolini vehemently oppose, and why? Why might such principles and claims that he espouses in this document appeal to a broad public in the aftermath of World War One? (page 761) 4. “Adolf Hitler’s Hatred of the Jews”: What was Hitler's attitude toward the Jews? What fueled his irrational hatred of Jews? What role might nineteenth century German nationalism have played in fueling anti-Semitism? Why do you think that such crazed views became acceptable (or at least tolerable) to large numbers of ordinary Germans in the aftermath of World War One? (page 763) 5. “The Formation of Collective Farms”: What is a collective farm and how was it created? What was the reason that Stalin ordered the collectivization of agriculture? What traditions of Russian life and character did this novel unit of agricultural production attack? What social and economic costs were involved in the formation of the collectives? Were the collective farms successful? Why or why not? (page 772)