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Unit: CELLS
Biology
Mr. Heenan
Chapter 9
Cellular Respiration
9-1 Chemical Pathways
• Food provides living things with the chemical
building blocks they need to grow and
reproduce.
• Food serves as a source of raw materials for cells
of the body, and as a source of energy for
heterotrophs.
Animal Cells
Animal
Mitochondrion
Plant
Plant Cells
Both plant and animal cells carry out the final stages of
cellular respiration in the mitochondria.
Animal Cells
Intermembrane
Mitochondrion
space
Outer membrane
Inner
membrane
Matrix
Plant Cells
Chemical Energy and Food
• Our cells can use all sorts of molecules as food,
including fats, sugars (carbohydrates), and
proteins.
• One gram of glucose (C6H12O6), when burned in
the presence of oxygen, releases 3811 calories
of heat energy.
• A calorie is the amount of energy needed to
raise the temperature of 1 g of water 1oC.
calorie = 1 kilocalorie = 1,000 calories
• Cells don’t “burn” glucose, but they gradually
release the energy.
• This process starts with glycolysis, which
releases only a small amount of energy.
• If oxygen is present, glycolysis leads to two
other pathways that release a great deal of
energy.
• If oxygen is not present, glycolysis is followed by
a different pathway.
Overview of Cellular Respiration
• Cellular respiration is the process that
releases energy by breaking down glucose and
other food molecules in the presence of oxygen.
• Glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron
transport chain make up the process of
cellular respiration.
6 O2 + C6H12O6  6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy
Oxygen
+
Sugar

Carbon Dioxide +
Water +
Energy
Electrons carried in NADH
Pyruvic
acid
Glucose
Electrons carried
in NADH and
FADH2
Glycolysis
Cytoplasm
Mitochondrion
• If cellular respiration took place in one step, all
of the energy would be released at once.
• Most of it would be lost as heat and light.
• A living cell has to control that energy and
needs to trap it by using little bits of energy to
make ATP.
• Each of the three stages of cellular respiration
captures some of the chemical energy available
in food molecules and uses it to produce ATP.
Glycolysis
Cytoplasm
Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm. The Krebs cycle
and electron transport take place in the mitochondria.
Glycolysis
• Glycolysis is the process in which one molecule
of glucose is broken in half, producing two
molecules of pyruvic acid.
ATP Production
• Glycolysis is an energy-releasing process, but the
cell needs to put in a little energy to get things
going.
• The cell puts 2 ATP to start glycolysis, but 4
ATP molecules are produced at the end.
• That is a net gain of 2 ATP molecules for every
molecule of glucose.
ATP Production
At the beginning of glycolysis, the cell uses up 2
molecules of ATP to start the reaction.
2 ATP
2 ADP
4 ADP
4 ATP
Glucose
2 Pyruvic
acid
When glycolysis is complete, 4 ATP molecules have
been produced.
2 ATP
2 ADP
4 ADP
4 ATP
Glucose
2 Pyruvic
acid
This gives the cell a net gain of 2 ATP molecules.
2 ATP
2 ADP
4 ADP
4 ATP
Glucose
2 Pyruvic
acid
NADH Production
• One of the reactions of glycolysis removes 4 highenergy electrons and passes them to an electron
carrier called NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide).
• Each NAD+ accepts a pair of high-energy electrons.
• This molecule, known as NADH, holds the
electrons until they can be transferred to other
molecules.
• NAD+ helps to pass energy from glucose to other
pathways in the cell.
NADH Production
One reaction of glycolysis removes 4 high-energy
electrons, passing them to an electron carrier called
NAD+.
2 ATP
2 ADP
4 ADP
4 ATP
Glucose
2NAD+
2 Pyruvic
acid
Each NAD+ accepts a pair of high-energy electrons and
becomes an NADH molecule.
2 ATP
2 ADP
4 ADP
4 ATP
Glucose
2NAD+
2
2 Pyruvic
acid
The NADH molecule holds the electrons until they can
be transferred to other molecules.
2 ATP
2 ADP
4 ADP
2NAD+
4 ATP
2
2 Pyruvic
acid
To the electron
transport chain
• Glycolysis produces thousands of ATP
molecules in a few milliseconds, and it does not
require oxygen.
• Glycolysis can supply chemical energy to cells
when oxygen is not available.
• When a cell generates large amounts of ATP
from glycolysis, after a few seconds all of the
available NAD+ molecules are filled up with
electrons.
• Without NAD+, ATP production stops.
Fermentation
• When oxygen is not present, glycolysis is
followed by a different pathway.
• The combined process of this pathway and
glycolysis is called fermentation.
• During fermentation, cells convert NADH to
NAD+ by passing high-energy electrons back to
pyruvic acid.
• This converts NADH back into the electron
carrier NAD+, allowing glycolysis to continue
producing a steady supply of ATP.
• The two main types of fermentation are
alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid
fermentation.
• Fermentation is a process that does not require
oxygen, so it is known as anaerobic (“not in
air”).
Alcoholic Fermentation
• Yeasts and a few other microorganisms use
alcoholic fermentation, forming ethyl alcohol
and carbon dioxide as waste products.
• The equation for alcoholic fermentation after
glycolysis is:
Pyruvic Acid + NADH  Alcohol + CO2 + NAD+
• Alcoholic fermentation causes bread dough to
rise.
• When oxygen in bread dough runs out, the yeast
begins fermentation.
• The bubbles of CO2 form the air spaces you see
in bread.
• The alcohol evaporates as the bread is baked.
Lactic Acid Fermentation
• In many cells, the pyruvic acid that
accumulates from glycolysis can be converted
to lactic acid.
• This process regenerates NAD+ so that
glycolysis can continue.
• The equation for lactic acid fermentation after
glycolysis is:
Pyruvic Acid + NADH  Lactic Acid + NAD+
• Your muscles produce lactic acid when oxygen
is not available to the tissues.
• Without enough oxygen, the body is not able to
produce all of the ATP required.
The first part of the equation is glycolysis.
The second part shows the conversion of pyruvic acid to
lactic acid.
• The burning sensation in your muscles after an
intense workout is due to the buildup of lactic
acid.
• Unicellular organisms also produce lactic acid
as a waste product during fermentation.
• Prokaryotes are used by humans to make a
variety of foods and beverages such as: cheese,
yogurt, buttermilk, sour cream, pickles,
sauerkraut, beer, and wine.
9-2 The Krebs Cycle and Electron
Transport
• At the end of glycolysis, 90% of the chemical
energy that was available in glucose is still
unused.
• The energy is locked in the high-energy
electrons of pyruvic acid.
• Oxygen is required for the final steps of cellular
respiration.
• Oxygen is one of the most powerful electron
acceptors in the world.
• Since oxygen is required for cellular respiration,
the pathways are said to be aerobic.
The Krebs Cycle
• The second stage of cellular respiration is called
the Krebs cycle.
• Pyruvic acid, produced in glycolysis, is broken
down into carbon dioxide and a series of
energy-extracting reactions.
• The Krebs cycle is named after Hans Krebs, the
British biochemist who demonstrated its
existence in 1937. He was awarded the Nobel
Prize in 1953.
• The first compound produced in the Krebs cycle
is citric acid, so the Krebs cycle is also called
the citric acid cycle.
A.) Pyruvic acid enters the mitochondrion.
• One carbon atom from pyruvic acid becomes part of
a molecule of CO2, which is eventually released into
the air.
• The other two carbon atoms are joined to a
compound called coenzyme A to form acetyl-CoA
(the acetyl part of acetyl-CoA is made of 2 carbon
atoms, 1 oxygen atom, and 3 hydrogen atoms).
• Acetyl-CoA then adds the 2-carbon acetyl group to
a 4-carbon molecule producing a 6-carbon molecule
called citric acid.
B.) As the cycle continues, citric acid is broken
down into a 4-carbon molecule.
• More CO2 is released and electrons are
transferred to energy carriers.
• The 6 carbon atoms in citric acid start the cycle.
• One carbon atom is removed, then another,
releasing 2 molecules of CO2 and leaving a 4carbon molecule.
• This 4-carbon molecule is then ready to accept
another 2-carbon acetyl group, which starts the
cycle over.
• For each turn of the cycle, a molecule similar to
ADP is converted to a molecule that is similar to
ATP.
• The electron carriers NAD+ and FAD are used.
• At five places in the cycle, a pair of high-energy
electrons is accepted by electron carriers,
changing NAD+ to NADH and FAD to FADH2.
• FAD (flavine adenine dinucleotide) and FADH2
are similar to NAD+ and NADH, respectively.
• The CO2 is released and is the source of all the
carbon dioxide in your breath as you exhale.
• The ATP produced can be used for cellular
activities.
• The high-energy electrons in carriers like
NADH, in the presence of oxygen, can be used
to generate huge amounts of ATP.
The Krebs cycle
begins when pyruvic
acid produced by
glycolysis enters the
mitochondrion.
One carbon molecule
is removed, forming
CO2, and electrons are
removed, changing
NAD+ to NADH.
Coenzyme A joins
the 2-carbon
molecule, forming
acetyl-CoA.
Acetyl-CoA then
adds the 2-carbon
acetyl group to a 4carbon compound,
forming citric acid.
Citric acid
Citric acid is broken down into a 5-carbon compound,
then into a 4-carbon compound.
Two more molecules of CO2 are released and electrons
join NAD+ and FAD, forming NADH and FADH2
In addition, one molecule of ATP is generated.
The energy tally from 1 molecule of pyruvic acid is
 4 NADH
 1 FADH2
 1 ATP
Electron Transport
• Krebs cycle generates high-energy electrons that
are passed to NADH and FADH2.
• They are then passed to the electron
transport chain.
• The electron transport chain uses high-energy
electrons from the Krebs cycle to convert ADP
to ATP.
A.) In eukaryotes, the electron transport chain is
composed of a series of carrier proteins located
in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion.
• In prokaryotes, the same chain is in the cell
membrane.
• High-energy electrons from NADH and FADH2
are passed from one carrier protein to the next.
• At the end of the chain is an enzyme that
combines these electrons with hydrogen ions
and oxygen to form water.
• Oxygen serves as the final electron acceptor to
get rid of the low-energy electrons and hydrogen
ions as waste.
B.) Every time 2 high-energy electrons transport
down the electron transport chain, their energy
is used to transport H+ ions across the
membrane.
• H+ ions build up in the intermembrane space,
making it positively charged and the other side
of the membrane is negatively charged.
C.) The inner membranes of the mitochondria
contain protein spheres called ATP synthases.
• As H+ ions escape through channels into these
proteins, the ATP synthase spins like a turbine.
• Each time it rotates, the enzyme grabs a low-energy
ADP and attaches a phosphate, forming highenergy ATP.
• On average, each pair of high-energy electrons that
move down the electron transport chain provides
enough energy to produce three molecules of ATP
from ADP.
High-energy electrons from NADH and FADH2 are
passed along the electron transport chain from one
carrier protein to the next.
At the end of the chain, an enzyme combines these
electrons with hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water.
As the final electron acceptor of the electron transport chain,
oxygen gets rid of the low-energy electrons and hydrogen
ions.
When 2 high-energy electrons move down the electron
transport chain, their energy is used to move hydrogen ions
(H+) across the membrane.
During electron transport, H+ ions build up in the
intermembrane space, so it is positively charged.
The other side of the membrane, from which those H+ ions
are taken, is now negatively charged.
The inner membranes of the mitochondria contain protein
spheres called ATP synthases.
ATP
synthase
As H+ ions escape through channels into these proteins, the
ATP synthase spins.
Channel
ATP
synthase
As it rotates, the enzyme grabs a low-energy ADP, attaching a
phosphate, forming high-energy ATP.
Channel
ATP
synthase
ATP
Totals
• Glycolysis produces 2 ATP molecules per
molecule of glucose in the presence of oxygen.
• The Krebs cycle and electron transport chain
enable the cell to produce roughly 36 ATP
molecules per glucose molecule, 18 times as
much as can be generated in the absence of
oxygen.
• Complex carbohydrates are broken down to
simple sugars like glucose.
• Lipids and proteins can also be broken down
into molecules that can enter the Krebs cycle or
glycolysis.
• The 36 molecules of ATP represent about 38% of
the total energy of glucose. The remaining 62%
is released as heat.
Energy and Exercise
• To obtain energy, the body uses ATP already in
muscles and new ATP made by lactic acid
fermentation and cellular respiration.
Quick Energy
• Cells normally contain small amounts of ATP
produced during glycolysis and cellular
respiration.
• If we think about a track race, the muscles of the
runners contain only enough ATP for a few
seconds of intense activity.
• That store of energy is almost gone before the
50-meter mark.
• At this point, their muscle cells are producing
most of their ATP by lactic acid fermentation.
• These sources can usually supply enough ATP to
last about 90 seconds.
• Lactic acid is a byproduct of fermentation, and
the only way to get rid of the lactic acid is by a
chemical pathway that requires extra oxygen.
Long-term Energy
• For exercise longer than about 90 seconds, cellular
respiration releases energy more slowly than
fermentation.
• Your body stores energy in muscle and other tissues
in the form of the carbohydrate glycogen.
• These stores of glycogen are usually enough to last
for 15 or 20 minutes of activity.
• After that, your body begins to break down other
stored molecules, including fats, for energy.
Comparing Photosynthesis and Cellular
Respiration
• The energy flows in photosynthesis and
cellular respiration take place in opposite
directions.
• Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere and cellular respiration puts it
back.
• Photosynthesis releases oxygen into the
atmosphere and cellular respiration uses that
oxygen to release energy from food.
• The release of energy by cellular respiration
takes place in all eukaryotes and some
prokaryotes.
• Energy captured by photosynthesis occurs only
in plants, algae, and some bacteria.
Comparing Photosynthesis and
Cellular Respiration
Photosynthesis
Cellular Respiration
Function
Energy capture
Energy release
Location
Chloroplasts
Mitochondria
Reactants
CO2 and H2O
C6H12O6 and O2
Products
C6H12O6 and O2
CO2 and H2O
Equation
6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2
6O2 + C6H12O6  6CO2 + 6H2O
energy
energy