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Chapter 10 Inequalities of Gender Chapter Outline Antecedents of Gender Theoretical Perspectives on Gender Sex Stereotypes and Gender Roles Gender Inequality Changing Gender Roles Antecedents of Gender Sex – biological distinction between male and female. Biological determinism – attribution of behavioral differences to inherited physical characteristics. Gender – the expectations and behaviors associated with a sex category within a society, acquired through socialization. Gender identity – an awareness of being masculine or feminine, based on culture. Gender and Behavior All societies have expectations and behaviors associated with a sex category. There are no genetically based behavior differences between sexes. Behavioral differences between men and women are culturally and socially created. Differences in Social Behavior In dozens of different cultures, men value physical appearance more than women do. Women place more emphasis on social class and income. Males generally tend more toward physical aggressiveness in conflict situations. Many researchers have been unable to consistently establish biological differences as an independent variable. Margaret Mead: Culture and Socialization on Gender Roles Among the Arapesh: Mead found both males and females were conditioned to be cooperative, unaggressive, and empathetic. Men and women behaved in a way that is consistent with the traditional concept of the female gender role. Margaret Mead: Culture an Socialization on Gender Roles Among the Mundugumor: Men and women were trained to be “masculine” - aggressive, ruthless, and unresponsive to the needs of others. In the Tchambuli tribe: Gender roles were the opposite of those found in Western society. Women were dominant, impersonal, and aggressive, and men were dependent and submissive. Gender Across Cultures Gender behavior of the five-nation League of the Iroquois is matrilineal. Women had/have power and respect. Male dominancy and female subordination were absent in this culture where women took charge of village affairs, including military activities. Parents who intentionally treated their children as if they belonged to the opposite gender demonstrate that biological tendencies can be greatly influenced by culture and society. Gender Across Cultures The general pattern of gender roles in preliterate societies is male dominance and female nurturance. Women’s tasks involve domestic chores, child rearing, and emotional harmony. Men provide financially for the family and represent the family in activities outside the home. Rotundo’s Conceptions of Manhood: Three phases Culturally created conceptions of manhood. 1. Communal manhood Developed in the socially integrated society of colonial New England. Definition of manhood was embedded in one’s obligations to community. Rotundo’s Conceptions of Manhood: Three phases 2. Self-made manhood A man’s work role became his source of male identity. Because a man was supposed to prove his superiority, the drive for dominance was viewed as virtuous. Women were assigned the role of protecting the common good. Rotundo’s Conceptions of Manhood: Three phases 3. Passionate manhood Emphasized not just achievement, but ambition, combativeness, and aggression. Male toughness was admired, tenderness scorned. Functionalist Perspective on Gender Division of responsibilities between males and females survived because it was beneficial for human living. Early humans found sex-based division of labor efficient. The traditional division of labor has dysfunctions, especially for modern society. Conflict Perspective on Gender Men and women have differential access to the necessary resources outside-the-home success. By keeping the traditional division of labor intact, men can maintain the status quo and preserve the privileges they enjoy. Contend that men want to maintain the status quo and protect their dominance of women and society. Traditional gender definitions are not appropriate and are outdated in the modern world. Conflict Perspective on Gender Marxist and socialist feminists see the position of women in capitalist society as the result of two interrelated influences: patriarchal (male-dominated) institutions and the historical development of industrial capitalism. The subordination of women is seen as a key component in the maintenance of the political and economic institutions in capitalist society. Symbolic Interactionism Perspective on Gender Gender definitions are imparted through socialization. They are learned and reinforced through interaction with parents, teachers, peers, and the media. Gender socialization occurs through elements of the mass media such as books, television, and advertising. Summary Theoretical Perspectives Parents Contribution to Gender Socialization Transfer values and attitudes regarding the ways boys and girls should behave. Parents expect boys to be more assertive and they discourage them from clinging. Infant girls are cuddled more, talked to more, and handled more gently. As parents respond to their children’s behavior, they usually intentionally as well as unconsciously continue to transfer their gender-related values. Children are evaluated according to their level of conformity to gender definition. Schools Contribution to Gender Socialization Teachers encourage different behaviors from girls and boys. Teachers are more likely to call on boys and accept answers given by boys who call out answers. Sadkers (1995) conclude that through differential treatment, America’s schools often shortchange females; gender bias results in an inferior education for girls. Girls are systematically taught passivity, a dislike of math and science, and a deference to the alleged superior abilities of boys. Sex Stereotypes Gender roles permit deviation from the ideal, but sex stereotypes are labels applied to all members of each sex. Sex stereotypes encourage men to be masculine and women to be feminine. Sex stereotypes and gender roles intensify role conflict and strain for men and women. Gender Roles Gender Roles – culturally-based expectations associated with each sex. Represent an ideal since people do not always behave as expected. Marital Status of Women in the U.S. Civilian Labor Force Questions for Consideration In what ways do gender roles create role conflict and role strain in our society (for males and females)? What do the patterns demonstrated in the previous table tell us about the demands that are placed on women differently? Women as a Minority Group Women suffer the effects of sexism: a set of beliefs, norms, and values used to justify sexual inequality. Sexist ideology – the belief that men are naturally superior to women. When the question “Isn’t sexism disappearing?” the answer is “yes” and “no.” Questions for Consideration What gender inequalities exist today? Both demonstrated in the video and those you have seen but not in the video. What is a glass ceiling? What are some recent examples of people breaking through the glass ceiling? Do other groups of people face forms of the glass ceiling other than women? Gender Inequality Some women now hold positions traditionally reserved for men. In 2008, 10 female CEOs of Fortune 500 companies and 16% of corporate officers of these companies are female. Women now head a number of top universities. Percentage of women in the Army went from 9.4% in 1981 to 15.5% in 2001. Women now comprise 18.3% of the Air Force and 13.3% of the Navy. Gender Inequality Gaps continue to be reflected in the continuing occupational, economic, legal, and political inequality experienced by American women. Occupational and Economic Inequality From 1971 – 1989, more than a million additional women entered the labor force each year. In 1960, 23 million women worked outside the home for pay; by 2000, the figure reached 66 million. In 2006, 55% of women worked outside the home compared to 82% of men. U.S. Labor Force Participation Rates by Sex: 1890–2000 Composition of the U.S. Labor Force by Sex, 1870–2008 Women’s Annual Earnings as % of Men’s Among Full-Time Workers Women in the Workplace Questions for Consideration What are some reasons that countries with the highest gender income equality include highly developed countries like the U.S. and France as well as relatively underdeveloped countries like Angola and Kenya? What other patterns do you see in each of the previous charts/tables? Female-to-Male Earnings Legal and Political Inequality According to the U.S. Civil Rights Commission, more than 800 sections of the U.S. legal code are sexually biased. Dependent status of women permeates the law. For instance, a U.S. Supreme Court decision refused to grant women the legal guarantee of health insurance benefits for pregnancy-related medical costs, despite the fact that medical coverage for medical conditions unique to men was routinely provided. Legal and Political Inequality There are gender differences in criminal law. Certain crimes are typically associated with one gender or the other. For instance, laws against prostitution are generally enforced only against women, while male customers go free. Less than 1/4 of state legislators were women. Women occupy about 16% of the seats in the U.S. House of Representatives, yet comprise over 1/2 of the population. Percentage of Women in Elective Offices Legal and Political Inequality Women also represent about 16% of the U.S. Senate in 2008. 1988 - Geraldine Ferraro is the first female U.S. vice-presidential candidate 2008 - Sarah Palin is the second female U.S. vice-presidential candidate 2002 - Nancy Pelosi becomes the first female House Minority Whip, and then in 2007 becomes the first female Speaker of the House Women in Public Office Questions for Consideration Is it surprising that women did not have the full legal right to vote in so many states prior to 1920? What was the voting situation for women in your “home” state prior to the Nineteenth Amendment? What do you think might explain the regional differences relative to women’s suffrage? Gender Roles In The Future Emergent pluralism There would be no restrictions on the options available to either sex. Individuals following traditional gender roles would exist alongside those who are pursuing a different course. Gender Roles In The Future Conservative pluralism Men’s and women’s roles would be different but valued equally. All roles, whether male or female, would be considered equally important and rewarded accordingly. Gender Roles In The Future Melting pot No important differences in gender roles for men and women. Male and female roles would be combined. Men and women would be strong and self-sufficient, yet capable of expressing emotion and sensitivity. Gender Roles in the Future Assimilation to the male model of success Women would be encouraged to follow the masculine role if they participate in traditionally male activities. Women could become doctors, lawyers, and businesspersons if they behaved like men. Feminine traits would be considered a hindrance. Gender Roles in the Future Female exclusion There would be a continuation of traditional gender roles. On the assumption that sex differences are biological, men and women would be excluded from exchanging tasks. Women would be discouraged from assuming male roles, and their own tasks would be under-rewarded. Questions for Consideration What are factors that promote change in gender roles, gender inequality, etc.? What is your reaction to the identified definition of feminism as “a social movement aimed at the achievement of sexual equality”? Based on this definition, would you classify yourself as a feminist or non-feminist?