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Chapter 10
Inequalities of
Gender
Chapter Outline
Antecedents of Gender
 Theoretical Perspectives on Gender
 Sex Stereotypes and Gender Roles
 Gender Inequality
 Changing Gender Roles
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Antecedents of Gender
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Sex – biological distinction between male
and female.
Biological determinism – attribution of
behavioral differences to inherited physical
characteristics.
Gender – the expectations and behaviors
associated with a sex category within a
society, acquired through socialization.
Gender identity – an awareness of being
masculine or feminine, based on culture.
Gender and Behavior
All societies have expectations
and behaviors associated with a
sex category.
 There are no genetically based
behavior differences between sexes.
 Behavioral differences between men
and women are culturally and
socially created.
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Differences in
Social Behavior
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In dozens of different cultures, men value
physical appearance more than women
do. Women place more emphasis on
social class and income. Males generally
tend more toward physical
aggressiveness in conflict situations.
Many researchers have been unable to
consistently establish biological
differences as an independent variable.
Margaret Mead: Culture and
Socialization on Gender Roles
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Among the Arapesh:
 Mead found both males and females
were conditioned to be cooperative,
unaggressive, and empathetic.
 Men and women behaved in a way that
is consistent with the traditional
concept of the female gender role.
Margaret Mead: Culture an
Socialization on Gender Roles
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Among the Mundugumor:
 Men and women were trained to be
“masculine” - aggressive, ruthless, and
unresponsive to the needs of others.
In the Tchambuli tribe:
 Gender roles were the opposite of
those found in Western society. Women
were dominant, impersonal, and
aggressive, and men were dependent
and submissive.
Gender Across Cultures
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Gender behavior of the five-nation League of
the Iroquois is matrilineal. Women had/have
power and respect. Male dominancy and
female subordination were absent in this
culture where women took charge of village
affairs, including military activities.
Parents who intentionally treated their
children as if they belonged to the opposite
gender demonstrate that biological
tendencies can be greatly influenced by
culture and society.
Gender Across Cultures
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The general pattern of gender roles in
preliterate societies is male dominance
and female nurturance.
Women’s tasks involve domestic chores,
child rearing, and emotional harmony.
Men provide financially for the family and
represent the family in activities outside
the home.
Rotundo’s Conceptions of
Manhood: Three phases
Culturally created conceptions of manhood.
1. Communal manhood
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Developed in the socially integrated
society of colonial New England.

Definition of manhood was embedded
in one’s obligations to community.
Rotundo’s Conceptions of
Manhood: Three phases
2.
Self-made manhood
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A man’s work role became his source
of male identity.

Because a man was supposed to
prove his superiority, the drive for
dominance was viewed as virtuous.

Women were assigned the role of
protecting the common good.
Rotundo’s Conceptions of
Manhood: Three phases
3.
Passionate manhood
 Emphasized not just
achievement, but ambition,
combativeness, and aggression.
 Male toughness was admired,
tenderness scorned.
Functionalist Perspective
on Gender
Division of responsibilities between
males and females survived because
it was beneficial for human living.
 Early humans found sex-based
division of labor efficient.
 The traditional division of labor
has dysfunctions, especially for
modern society.
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Conflict Perspective on Gender
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Men and women have differential access to the
necessary resources outside-the-home success.
By keeping the traditional division of labor
intact, men can maintain the status quo and
preserve the privileges they enjoy.
Contend that men want to maintain the status
quo and protect their dominance of women
and society.
Traditional gender definitions are not appropriate
and are outdated in the modern world.
Conflict Perspective on Gender
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Marxist and socialist feminists see the
position of women in capitalist society as
the result of two interrelated influences:
patriarchal (male-dominated) institutions
and the historical development of
industrial capitalism.
The subordination of women is seen as a
key component in the maintenance of the
political and economic institutions in
capitalist society.
Symbolic Interactionism
Perspective on Gender
Gender definitions are imparted
through socialization.
 They are learned and reinforced
through interaction with parents,
teachers, peers, and the media.
 Gender socialization occurs through
elements of the mass media such as
books, television, and advertising.
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Summary Theoretical
Perspectives
Parents Contribution to
Gender Socialization
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Transfer values and attitudes regarding the
ways boys and girls should behave.
Parents expect boys to be more assertive
and they discourage them from clinging.
Infant girls are cuddled more, talked to
more, and handled more gently.
As parents respond to their children’s
behavior, they usually intentionally as well as
unconsciously continue to transfer their
gender-related values.
Children are evaluated according to their
level of conformity to gender definition.
Schools Contribution to
Gender Socialization
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Teachers encourage different behaviors from
girls and boys.
Teachers are more likely to call on boys
and accept answers given by boys who call
out answers.
Sadkers (1995) conclude that through
differential treatment, America’s schools
often shortchange females; gender bias
results in an inferior education for girls.
Girls are systematically taught passivity, a
dislike of math and science, and a deference
to the alleged superior abilities of boys.
Sex Stereotypes
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Gender roles permit deviation from the
ideal, but sex stereotypes are labels
applied to all members of each sex.
Sex stereotypes encourage men to be
masculine and women to be feminine.
Sex stereotypes and gender roles
intensify role conflict and strain for men
and women.
Gender Roles
Gender Roles – culturally-based
expectations associated with
each sex.
 Represent an ideal since people do
not always behave as expected.
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Marital Status of Women in the
U.S. Civilian Labor Force
Questions for Consideration
In what ways do gender roles create
role conflict and role strain in our
society (for males and females)?
 What do the patterns demonstrated
in the previous table tell us about
the demands that are placed on
women differently?
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Women as a Minority Group
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Women suffer the effects of sexism: a
set of beliefs, norms, and values used to
justify sexual inequality.
Sexist ideology – the belief that men
are naturally superior to women.
When the question “Isn’t sexism
disappearing?” the answer is “yes” and
“no.”
Questions for Consideration
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What gender inequalities exist today?
Both demonstrated in the video and those
you have seen but not in the video.
What is a glass ceiling? What are some
recent examples of people breaking
through the glass ceiling?
Do other groups of people face forms of
the glass ceiling other than women?
Gender Inequality
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Some women now hold positions traditionally
reserved for men.
In 2008, 10 female CEOs of Fortune 500
companies and 16% of corporate officers of
these companies are female.
Women now head a number of top
universities.
Percentage of women in the Army went from
9.4% in 1981 to 15.5% in 2001.
Women now comprise 18.3% of the Air Force
and 13.3% of the Navy.
Gender Inequality
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Gaps continue to be reflected in the
continuing occupational, economic, legal,
and political inequality experienced by
American women.
Occupational and
Economic Inequality
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From 1971 – 1989, more than a million
additional women entered the labor force
each year.
In 1960, 23 million women worked
outside the home for pay; by 2000, the
figure reached 66 million.
In 2006, 55% of women worked outside
the home compared to 82% of men.
U.S. Labor Force Participation
Rates by Sex: 1890–2000
Composition of the U.S. Labor
Force by Sex, 1870–2008
Women’s Annual Earnings as % of
Men’s Among Full-Time Workers
Women in the Workplace
Questions for Consideration
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What are some reasons that countries
with the highest gender income equality
include highly developed countries like
the U.S. and France as well as relatively
underdeveloped countries like Angola
and Kenya?
What other patterns do you see in each of
the previous charts/tables?
Female-to-Male Earnings
Legal and Political
Inequality
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According to the U.S. Civil Rights
Commission, more than 800 sections of
the U.S. legal code are sexually biased.
Dependent status of women permeates
the law. For instance, a U.S. Supreme
Court decision refused to grant women
the legal guarantee of health insurance
benefits for pregnancy-related medical
costs, despite the fact that medical
coverage for medical conditions unique to
men was routinely provided.
Legal and Political
Inequality
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There are gender differences in criminal law.
Certain crimes are typically associated with
one gender or the other. For instance, laws
against prostitution are generally enforced
only against women, while male customers
go free.
Less than 1/4 of state legislators
were women.
Women occupy about 16% of the seats in
the U.S. House of Representatives, yet
comprise over 1/2 of the population.
Percentage of Women in
Elective Offices
Legal and Political
Inequality
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Women also represent about 16% of the
U.S. Senate in 2008.
1988 - Geraldine Ferraro is the first
female U.S. vice-presidential candidate
2008 - Sarah Palin is the second female
U.S. vice-presidential candidate
2002 - Nancy Pelosi becomes the first
female House Minority Whip, and then in
2007 becomes the first female Speaker of
the House
Women in Public Office
Questions for Consideration
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Is it surprising that women did not have
the full legal right to vote in so many
states prior to 1920?
What was the voting situation for women
in your “home” state prior to the
Nineteenth Amendment?
What do you think might explain
the regional differences relative to
women’s suffrage?
Gender Roles In The Future
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Emergent pluralism
 There would be no restrictions on
the options available to either sex.
 Individuals following traditional
gender roles would exist
alongside those who are pursuing
a different course.
Gender Roles In The Future
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Conservative pluralism
 Men’s and women’s roles would be
different but valued equally.
 All roles, whether male or female,
would be considered equally
important and rewarded
accordingly.
Gender Roles In The Future
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Melting pot
 No important differences in gender
roles for men and women.
 Male and female roles would
be combined.
 Men and women would be strong and
self-sufficient, yet capable of
expressing emotion and sensitivity.
Gender Roles in the Future
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Assimilation to the male model
of success
 Women would be encouraged to follow
the masculine role if they participate in
traditionally male activities.
 Women could become doctors, lawyers,
and businesspersons if they behaved
like men.
 Feminine traits would be considered
a hindrance.
Gender Roles in the Future
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Female exclusion
 There would be a continuation of
traditional gender roles.
 On the assumption that sex differences
are biological, men and women would
be excluded from exchanging tasks.
 Women would be discouraged from
assuming male roles, and their own
tasks would be under-rewarded.
Questions for Consideration
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What are factors that promote change in
gender roles, gender inequality, etc.?
What is your reaction to the identified
definition of feminism as “a social
movement aimed at the achievement of
sexual equality”? Based on this definition,
would you classify yourself as a feminist
or non-feminist?