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Art of Qualifying Claims
Prasad M. Jayaweera
[email protected]
The Toulmin Model
Toulmin, Stephen E.
Department: Anthropology
E-Mail: [email protected]
http://commfaculty.fullerton.edu/rgass/stephen_toulmin.htm
Claims
• Claims are concisely stated assertions
– they describe the focus of an argument
– and describe the writers stance toward the claim
• Claims are generally not self-evident
– they need to be supported by evidence (data)
– they need to be limited in scope
– they need to have a balanced tone (not be
emotionally loaded)
• The terms in claims need to be carefully defined
Evidence
• Evidence is data presented to support the claim.
– Evidence is also referred to as grounds for the
argument.
• Evidence is the data presented by the arguer to support
their claims and can include:
– personal experience
– statistics
– photographs and artifacts
– authoritative statements, etc.
Warrants
• Warrants are the generalizations that link the Evidence to
the claim
• Warrants are usually an implicit component of an argument
• Because warrants are so general, they can usually be used to
justify more than one particular inference.
– This means that warrants can be very slippery and
need to tied down (supported or justified)
Identifying Implicit Warrants
Homer-Dixon and Karparin note that a good device for
identifying warrants is the
“if-then-because” rule
– if the evidence,
– then the claim
– because of the warrant
Argument for Paying Taxes
• [if the Evidence] now is the time of year to pay taxes
• [then the claim] we should all pay our taxes
• [because the warrant] every citizen has a moral obligation to
pay taxes
• [backing of the warrant] the government acts in everyone’s
best interest
Graphical Argument Analysis
Thomas Homer-Dixon
Claim
(is thesis of argument)
w
Warrant
(explains why the evidence
supports the claim)
Evidence
(gives the reasons for accepting the claim)
Additional Evidence
(can support the original evidence
forming a sub-argument)
Backing
(gives support to warrant)
"Graphical Argument Analysis: A New Approach to Understanding Arguments, Applied to a Debate
about the Window of Vulnerability," with Roger Karapin, International Studies Quarterly, 33
December 1989, pp. 389-410.
http://www.library.utoronto.ca/pcs/tad.htm
Objections
Claim
(all people should pay their taxes)
w
Warrant
(every citizen has a
moral obligation to)
Backing
(the government acts
in everyone’s best interest)
Evidence
(this is the time of year
we are required to pay taxes)
Additional Evidence
(can support the original evidence
forming a sub-argument)
Attack2
(The government uses money
to benefit special interests
and commit immoral acts)
Attack1
(This is not the time to pay taxes)
Kinds of Objects
1. Considered and Rejected Objects & Alternatives during
research
2. Known Objections that audience will bring
3. Possible Alternatives that audience might think of
4. Objections that may occur after reading
Precision & Accuracy
1. Key terms
2. Oversimplified causes & effects
3. Overgeneralized
4. Counterexamples and special cases
Evaluation & criticism
1. Analyze the meaning of terms in Claim, evidence. Ambiguity?
2. Evidence really support the claim?
3. Even if, strong enough?
4. Is the warrant both supportasble & applicable to the claim?
Guide to Research & Reading
Your Questions
1. What is the point?
2. What is the scope of your claim?
3. What evidence do you have?
4. What links evidence to claim?
5. But what about?
Your Source’s Answers
6. But what if?
7. No problems here at all?
1. I claim that…
2. I limit it to…
3. I offer as evidence…
4. I offer this principle…
5. I can rebut that. First…
6. May claim stands as long as…
7. Well. I have to admit that...
Multiple Dimensions of a Problem
Logos—technical, specialized, scientific, professional definition
of the problem.
Ethos—ethical, spiritual definition of the problem.
Pathos—emotional, social, interpersonal definition of the
problem.
Cosmos—states the problem in a larger context, as it relates
to the larger system.
This is Not an Article
Just Some Food for Thought on How to Write One
Carsten Sørensen
http://is.lse.ac.uk/staff/sorensen/downloads/not/notart.pdf