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Western Civilization I HIS-101 UNIT 1 – Origins of Western Civilizations (Prehistory to 1700 BCE) Stone Age Background “Pre-History” started roughly 3-4 million years ago Early man and archeological evidence Tool-making hominids appear about 2 million years ago Paleolithic Period (c. 2.5 million years ago - 8,000 BCE) Heidelberg Man (600,000-400,000 years ago) Neanderthal Man (30,000-200,000 years ago) Deliberately buried their dead Possibility of abstract thought Upper Paleolithic Age (c. 40,000 -11,000BCE) Homo sapiens sapiens Finely crafted tools Cave paintings at Lascaux Paleolithic Cave Painting at Lascaux Upper Paleolithic Age Period of the “Ice Age” There was a jump in human advancement Temperatures in the Mediterranean averaged around 60˚F in the summer and 30˚F in the winter Sophisticated figurative artwork Evidence of religious beliefs More effective tools like fish hooks, sewing needles, and arrowheads Humans lived in hunter-gatherer societies Small bands of people, constantly moving in search of food Paleolithic or “Old Stone Age” Characteristics of hunter-gatherer societies: They lacked material wealth There were no societal hierarchies All were hunters and gatherers Internal struggles would lead to fragmentation There was a lack of specialization By the end of the Ice Age, the larger game herds left the Near East region The warmer, wetter conditions were ideal for wild grains to grow Neolithic or “New Stone Age” Neolithic Period (11,000 to 4,000 BCE) Intense social and technological development Development of managed food production (agriculture) Included the domestication of plants and animals Gradual process with revolutionary consequences In the west, it started in the Fertile Crescent Surplus food and storage This lead to an increase in population Also lead to development of animal domestication Neolithic or “New Stone Age” Beginning of permanent and semi-permanent settlements This led to the rise of villages and small cities This helped to stabilize society There was the rapid intensification of trade Exchange of commodities and new ideas Increase in wealth Social stratification Rise of a new class of social elites There was also the rise of specialization Included the rise of priestly class Neolithic cutlery and foodstuffs found in Switzerland Civilization Civilization: A complex culture in which large numbers of human beings share a number of common elements Emerged between 6,500 to 3,000 BCE Historians disagree as to why it came about Developed independently in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China “Challenge and Response” theory Challenges forced human beings to make the necessary efforts that led to the rise of civilization This could be due to material forces surpluses such as food Or it could be due to non-material forces such as religion Civilization Characteristics of civilization: Development of agricultural skills Rise of specialization A division of labor Urban revolution New political structures including government bureaucracies and militaries Distinct religious structures Advanced technical skills were developed, including the use of bronze tools Complex economies, including long-distance trade New social structures based on economic power Development of writing Civilization in Mesopotamia Located in the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys Desert region River flood enriches the soil near the rivers Flooding was very unpredictable Development of irrigation systems Governments were theocracies Priests and priestesses had great power Temples owned much of the city land and livestock Over time, they had to share their power with kings The kings received their power from the gods and they were seen as agents of the gods Civilization in Mesopotamia Economy was primarily agricultural Foreign trade was primarily a royal monopoly Industry and commerce rose in importance as well Traded such goods as wool, barley, wheat, copper, tin, aromatic woods, fruit trees Mesopotamian society was broken into three classes Nobles Commoners (free citizens) This included royal and priestly officials and their families 90% of population were farmers Slaves The richest people tended to own the most and talented slaves The Sumerians Sumerians (c. 6000 to 2500 BCE) The Sumerians inhabited southern Mesopotamia Ubaid Period (5900-4300 BCE) Sophisticated irrigation systems Intense temple-building Development of a religious structure Included the rise of a priestly class Priests were responsible for managing economic resources Uruk Period (4300-2900 BCE) The first city-states start to develop Temple building more prominent and elaborate Writing also developed during this period Sumerian clay ball with tokens Development of Writing “Token and ball” system Objects would be represented with clay tokens Would then be used in a transaction This was later replaced with writing on clay tablets Pictographs Earliest writing systems Symbols that resembled the physical object they represented Evolved into representing ideas as well as objects Eventually represented a particular phonetic sound Development of Writing Cuneiform (c. 3100 BCE) Abstract writing Used a durable reed stylus Cuneus – Wedge shaped impression in clay Symbols became more and more abstract Used for every possible consonant-vowel combination It was difficult to master and took years to learn “Houses of the Tablet” Evolution of writing Cuneiform tablet c. 2300 BCE Early Dynastic Period (2900-2350 BCE) Period of constant warfare between the city-states Cities grew in size from 10,000 to over 50,000 people This made competition for resources more intense Rise of war leaders (lugals) Held the status of king Acted as both secular and religious figures They led the armies of their gods into battle It was important to them to remain in their god’s favor Replaced the priests as the leaders of the communities Because of constant warfare, no one lugal became dominant Statue of a man worshiping Early Dynastic Period (c.2750-2600BCE) Sumerian Religion Religion played a major role in the Sumerian city-states Sumerian pantheon included around 1,500 gods Each city felt that their city was the property of one particular god or goddess Therefore, they sought to glorify by exalting their own city The physical environment had a major impact on how the Sumerians viewed the world Massive floods, heavy downpours, oppressive humidity, and scorching winds Suffered from the famines that resulted from these disasters According to Sumerian myth, humans were created to do the manual labor the gods were unwilling to do themselves Sumerian Religion They were afraid of being punished by the gods if they did not worship and praise them enough Development of divination They sought to appease—or not be punished by—the gods Performed rituals and sacrifices “Land of No Return” They wanted to discover what the gods were going to do Believed the gods would give some sort of sign or omen Rituals and prayers were developed to influence the gods and ward off demons However, the only people who knew these rituals and prayers were the priests Sumerian Technology and Trade They learned how to smelt tin and copper into bronze which ushered in the Bronze Age (c. 3000 BCE) They used the wheel for transport Oldest known wheel in Mesopotamia dated to c. 3,500 BCE Were used for two-wheel chariots and four-wheel carts Development of math system Based on 60, using combinations of 6 and 10 for practical solutions Used multiplication and division and created tables for the computation of interest Geometry was used for building domes and arches Sumerian Technology and Trade The Sumerians developed astronomy Development of a lunar calendar They charted the chief constellations Had 354 days based on a 12 month lunar year An extra month was added to bring it into sync with the solar year They also developed a complex trade system They traded for raw materials that they did not possess They built trade routes throughout the Mesopotamian region Expanded to the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Akkadian Empire c. 2300 BCE Akkadian Empire (2350-2160 BCE) Akkadians From Mesopotamia but north of Sumer They had been influenced by the Sumerians Shared similar cultures but each retained their own language Sumerians considered the Akkadians to be “outsiders” and barbarians Sargon (c. 2334-2279 BCE) The leader of the Akkadians According to legend, as a baby a gardener found him floating down a river in a basket Bust believed to be of Sargon of Akkad Akkadian Empire (2350-2160 BCE) Sargon was best known for being the first person to unify the Sumerian city-states He did this by conquering them and adding them to his own empire He established a new dynastic empire Included Mesopotamia to the Mediterranean Placed fellow Akkadians in power as governors of the cities Exploited the already developed trade routes to strengthen the base of his empire His economic influence stretched as far away as Ethiopia and India Akkadian Empire (2350-2160 BCE) Naram-Sin (2255 – 2219 BCE) He continued the expansion of the empire He was a promoter of culture and a patron of the arts He also claimed to be “the god of Agade” (Akkad) He was followed by a group of three weak successors who were unable to preserve the empire The reasons why the Akkadians were successful: Shared almost everything with the Sumerians except language Respected the Sumerian religion and gods Were able to create a unified government where the Sumerians were unable to Naram-Sin’s victory stele (Louvre) Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2100-1900 BCE) Ur-Nammu of Ur (2047-2030 BCE) Modeled his kingship on Sargon and Naram-Sin Pursued military conquests and centralizing the government Code of Ur-Nammu Shulgi (2029-1982 BCE) Earliest legal code Required the payment of fines for most crimes He continued the successful empire Built the Great Ziggurat of Ur Ibbi-Sin (1963-1940 BCE) He was too weak to rule This marked the decline of the Ur dynasty Reconstructed façade for the Great Ziggurat of Ur Third Dynasty of Ur (2100-2000 BCE) Sumerian Renaissance The Ur dynasty brought about a renaissance in culture However, this did not have a lasting effect on the region Other groups would have more of an influence in the region over the next 1,500 years The Epic of Gilgamesh (c. 2000 BCE) Earliest known piece of literature It was based on a series of poems written Gilgamesh was the legendary king of Uruk (c. 2700 BCE) Tales about military conquest and heroism Gilgamesh v. Enkidu – city v. wilderness Pessimistic toward natural environment Old Babylonian Empire Old Babylonian Empire (c. 1900-1595 BCE) Babylon was a small city-state in central Mesopotamia It was controlled by the Amorites Location between rivers gave it great economic and military significance Also between two powerful Amorite cities Hammurabi (1792-1750 BCE) He was the sixth king of Babylon One of the first rulers to conquer through diplomacy rather than sheer force Part of his strategy was through diplomacy and writing Hammurabi (1792-1750 BCE) Old Babylonian Empire (c. 1900-1595 BCE) Hammurabi organized all of Babylonia under Marduk Marduk was the god of Babylon Still respected the other gods but Marduk was the dominant god of the empire Used Marduk’s supremacy over the other gods as his justification to rule Code of Hammurabi A collection of laws used throughout his empire Contained 282 laws which regulated people’s relationships throughout Mesopotamia Based on actual rulings handed down by Hammurabi The Code of Hammurabi The Code of Hammurabi The Code was probably never intended to be a code of laws in the modern sense Was used as propaganda to publicize the king’s devotion to justice It reveals a society with strict justice Lists three classes: the elite, the masses, and slaves Penalties were severe but they were adjusted based on the social class of the parties involved Reflected issues and responsibilities the government had to deal with This included slavery, land tenure, commerce, consumer protection, and marriage The Code of Hammurabi Punishments for crimes varied according to one’s social class Crimes against the upper class were punished more severely Crimes against the lower class were punished more leniently Old Babylonian Society Upper class nobles controlled large estates and wealth Below the nobles, an enormous class of legally free individuals “Dependents” of the palace or temple Laborers, artisans, small merchants, farmers and officials At the bottom were the slaves In general, the slaves were treated harshly Slaves acquired through trade or captured in war Development of Civilization in Egypt The Nile River was of central importance to Egyptian civilization Annual flooding of the Nile created miles of fertile land for growing crops Egyptian civilization developed along very different lines than Mesopotamia Annual flooding of the Nile was predictable Land around the Nile did not require extensive irrigation State intervention was not necessary for food production so the villages remained small and rural Development of Civilization in Egypt Nile River valley was protected by natural barriers The Nile became the unifying factor for Egypt Desert to the east and west Rapids (cataracts) to the south Gave a sense of isolation and security Still had access to the Mediterranean to the north so they were not any trade barriers for Egyptians The fastest way to travel throughout the land Made transportation and communication much easier Because of the stability and reliability of the Nile, the Egyptians had a sense of security and changelessness Figurine of a woman from predynastic Egypt c.3500-3400BCE Predynastic Egypt (10,000 – 3100 BCE) The period prior to the emergence of the pharaohs Agriculture did not emerge until 5,000 BCE The Nile valley region was able to supply an abundance of food for long periods of time Increased population The first cities appeared in Upper Egypt around 3,200 BCE, all near the Nile Sophisticated fortifications Elaborate temples Attracted industry and travelers High degrees of social specialization Rivalry developed between Upper and Lower Egypt Narmer Palette c. 3100 BCE Organization of Egyptian History Manetho (c. 3rd century BCE) Set the basic framework for Egyptian history In his Aegyptiaca, he divided the rulers by dynasties Today, Egyptian history is divided into three major periods Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms These were periods were each marked with: Long-term stability with strong monarchical authority and competent administrations Construction of temples and pyramids Freedom from invasion Intellectual and cultural activities Between the periods are Intermediate Periods Characterized by political chaos, rivalries, and invasions Archaic Period (3100–c. 2686 BCE) By c. 3100 BCE, Upper and Lower Egypt were unified by King Narmer Started the first dynasty Archaic Period is characterized by: Administrative capital at Memphis (Lower Egypt) First dynastic rulers came into being Pharaohs were considered divine, not just received divine favor Earliest rulers were seen as the earthly manifestation of Horus, the falcon god Development of hieroglyphics These were “priest-carvings” or “sacred writings” developed during the first two dynasties They were pictographs that had a sacred value Archaic Period (3100–c. 2686 BCE) Hieroglyphics were only used by the royal family and the priest class First writings were carved in stone A more simple, faster, cursive script (Hieratic Script ) was used for everyday business of government and commerce Later the Egyptians made paper out of papyrus reed The first uses of papyrus came during the First Dynasty The ability to translate hieroglyphics came about with the discovery of the Rosetta Stone in 1799 It contained three different forms of writing: hieroglyphs, demotic, and classical Greek The Rosetta Stone Close up of the hieroglyphics Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE) Includes the 3rd through 6th Dynasties Unable to reconstruct an accurate history of this period So few documents exist to piece together a complete history Pharaohs were viewed as gods and were absolute rulers However, the pharaoh was required to follow the Ma’at This was a general concept of morality, law, and justice Pharaohs were divine instruments that were to maintain order and harmony Subjects were to obey the king to help keep the “cosmic order” Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE) Pharaohs had a well-developed bureaucracy to help them run the empire A vizier was in charge of administration During this period, pharaohs were involved more in religious matters than political ones This included justice, public works, police, etc. The pharaohs also appointed provincial governors They were known as nomarchs Tended to be family members of the pharaoh Pharaoh had to keep tight reins on them to keep them from establishing a power base in their provinces (nomes) Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE) An age of prosperity and splendor This is illustrated by the building of the great pyramids The pyramids were built as part of a “city of the dead” It included a large pyramid for the pharaoh Contained all the articles a person would need for the after-life Smaller pyramids for his family Included furniture, weapons, and food The original pyramids began as mastabas These were rectangular structures with flat roofs that served as tombs An Egyptian Mastaba Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE) Why did the Egyptians build such elaborate tombs? The Egyptians believed that people had two bodies: a physical one and a spiritual one (ka) By preserving the body through mummification, the ka could return to it The tomb was furnished with goods from everyday life to help the ka resume its life after death Mummification was a process of slowly drying out and preserving a body to prevent it from rotting The Egyptians first used mummification c. 3000 BCE It was not perfected until the New Kingdom Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE) Process of mummification: First the intestines, stomach, lungs, and liver would be removed and placed in a special jar (canopic jars) The heart would remain inside the body because that was needed for the “weighing of the heart” The brain was then removed through the nose with a special tool Salt would be placed on the body to absorb moisture The body would then be filled with spices and wrapped in layers of resin-soaked linen The whole process from start to finish would take approximately 70 days Mummification of pharaohs and their queens usually took the longest The Step Pyramid Step Pyramid The Step Pyramid was built during the 3rd Dynasty during the reign of King Djoser (c. 2630 BCE) It was designed by Imhotep, a priest of Heliopolis He probably designed it by building one mastaba on top of another The first “real” pyramid was built during the 4th Dynasty (c. 2600 BCE) Each side was filled in to make a flat sloped surface Built during the reign of King Snefru He went on to build a total of three pyramids Great Pyramid at Giza Great Pyramid at Giza This was built c. 2540 BC by King Snefru’s son, King Khufu Contains three pyramids Covers a total of 13 acres Great Pyramid is 756 feet on each side of its base and stands 481 feet high Its four sides are almost precisely oriented to each of the four points of the compass Recent research suggests that small groups of skilled workers were used in the construction In the case of the Great Pyramid, between 20,000 to 30,000 people were used and it took approximately 20 years to build Number of workers were reduced during the growing season What the Great Pyramid would have looked like Ancient Egyptian Society Four social classes: Pharaoh or god-king Upper Class Middle Class Merchants, artisans, and craftspeople Peasants Nobles and priests Largest percentage of the population They worked the king’s lands, and building projects, paid taxes in the forms of crops, and provided military service Slaves Typically captives of foreign wars but they did have legal rights, including the right to own personal property Osiris and Isis Egyptian Religion Egyptian religion was polytheistic They had over 150 gods in their pantheon Henotheistic – Worshipped mainly one god but recognize many others One of the most important deities was Osiris Egyptians believed that Osiris was the one who brought civilization to Egypt According to the myth, Osiris was killed by his brother Seth, who then cut his body into 14 pieces and threw those into the Nile Isis, his wife, found the pieces and restored him to life Egyptian Religion Because of this, Osiris became a symbol of resurrection and the judge of the dead in Egyptian religion When a person was died, he was mummified and given the name “Osiris” so he could be reborn Celebrations were held each year for the flooding of the Nile to symbolize Isis gathering Osiris’ parts and the start of new life The Egyptians did not have a negative view of the afterlife like the Mesopotamians had They saw death as a necessary step to the afterlife They believed the afterlife was to be better than their current lives Egyptian Religion The Egyptians a positive viewpoint not only of the afterlife, but their current lives as well Elaborate rituals took place when a death occurred They believed they lived in a stable, paradise-like universe, governed by the Ma’at They were connected to their gods through their pharaoh This included embalming and mummification as well as burying items with the deceased A “Book of the Dead” was also buried with the corpse It contained information that the deceased would need to know for the afterlife This included spells, incantations, and preparations for the ultimate test: the “weighing of the heart” Egyptian Religion “Weighing of the Heart” When a person died, he met with Osiris and other deities to weigh his heart against a feather The feather itself represented the Ma’at The heart would be weighed by Anubis, the god of the dead and mummification If it was balanced, the deceased could move on If the heart was too heavy, Ammut (Devourer of the Dead) was there to eat the deceased Weighing of the heart from the Book of the Dead Old Kingdom Science and Technology Astronomy was based on the sun Their solar calendar was more accurate than the Mesopotamians lunar one Developed irrigation and water control systems Did not develop the wheel until much later It was later adopted by Julius Caesar This was because of the number of workers available so there was no need for it There was no written legal code Whatever the pharaoh proclaimed was law End of the Old Kingdom Several problems led to the end of the Old Kingdom During this time, nomarchs grew in power Period of the 5th and 6th Dynasties Part of this was due to their positions becoming hereditary The nomes became more independent and the central authority of the pharaoh weakened People’s loyalty switch from the pharaohs to the nomarchs Egypt also was plagued with famines at this time Low Nile flooding led to crop failures and economic decline People blamed the pharaoh for disrupting the Ma’at End of the Old Kingdom Because of all of these problems, the priesthood of Ra at Nekhen “demoted” the pharaohs They were transformed from being an incarnation of Horus and Ra to the lowly position of being the son of a god This was done in order to wrest power away from weaker pharaohs The nomarchs then used the situation to seize control Many saw them and priests as the only ones who could guarantee stability and order First Intermediate Period (2160-2055 BC) Included the 7th through 11th Dynasties During this period, a unified country no longer existed Divided into Upper and Lower Egypt Rival dynasties were created with new centers of power Thebes in Upper Egypt Henen-nesut in Lower Egypt It was not until 2055 BC that Egypt was reunified King Mentuhotep, King of Thebes (Upper Egypt), defeated the rulers of Lower Egypt and then declared that he was ruler of all Egypt His reign marks the beginning of the Middle Kingdom Stele of Amenemhat I (c. 1938 BCE) Middle Kingdom (c. 2050-c. 1650 BCE) The Middle Kingdom period contained the 11th through 13th dynasties The 12th Dynasty (1991-1802 BCE) was the dominant dynasty during this period This was considered the “golden age” for Egypt During this time, nomes were restructured They were given permanent boundaries and the position of nomarch was officially made hereditary On the other hand, the nomarchs were required to know what their duties were and perform them accordingly Middle Kingdom (c. 2050-c. 1650 BCE) This was also a period of expansionism Egyptian forces conquered parts of Nubia to the south and built fortresses to protect its new borders They started expeditions into Palestine and Syria Pharaohs began embracing the idea of a co-regency It was first set up by Amenemhet I (1991-1962 BCE) He made his son as a co-ruler to prepare him for his future position This was designed to prevent any succession problems or inept rulers He was killed by the royal bodyguards in 1962 BCE Middle Kingdom (c. 2050-c. 1650 BCE) Egypt became more cynical during this period There was a change in the perception of the pharaoh The pharaohs were no longer seen as inaccessible god-kings who were higher than the people Having ma’at was not enough Pharaoh had to protect his people, he was seen as a “shepherd” to protect his “flock” Pharaohs no longer trusted those around them After the assassination of Amenemhat, even the pharaohs became cynical They began writing letters to their successors warning them of the constant threats and not to expect any loyalty from the people