Download Western Civilization I HIS-101

Western Civilization I
HIS-101
UNIT 1 – Origins of Western Civilizations (Prehistory to
1700 BCE)
Stone Age Background
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“Pre-History” started roughly 3-4 million years ago
Early man and archeological evidence
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Tool-making hominids appear about 2 million years ago
Paleolithic Period (c. 2.5 million years ago - 8,000 BCE)
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Heidelberg Man (600,000-400,000 years ago)
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Neanderthal Man (30,000-200,000 years ago)
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Deliberately buried their dead
Possibility of abstract thought
Upper Paleolithic Age (c. 40,000 -11,000BCE)
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Homo sapiens sapiens
Finely crafted tools
Cave paintings at Lascaux
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Paleolithic Cave Painting at Lascaux
Upper Paleolithic Age
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Period of the “Ice Age”
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There was a jump in human advancement
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Temperatures in the Mediterranean averaged around 60˚F in
the summer and 30˚F in the winter
Sophisticated figurative artwork
Evidence of religious beliefs
More effective tools like fish hooks, sewing needles, and
arrowheads
Humans lived in hunter-gatherer societies
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Small bands of people, constantly moving in search of food
Paleolithic or “Old Stone Age”
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Characteristics of hunter-gatherer societies:
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They lacked material wealth
There were no societal hierarchies
All were hunters and gatherers
Internal struggles would lead to fragmentation
There was a lack of specialization
By the end of the Ice Age, the larger game herds left the
Near East region
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The warmer, wetter conditions were ideal for wild grains to
grow
Neolithic or “New Stone Age”
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Neolithic Period (11,000 to 4,000 BCE)
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Intense social and technological development
Development of managed food production (agriculture)
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Included the domestication of plants and animals
Gradual process with revolutionary consequences
In the west, it started in the Fertile Crescent
Surplus food and storage
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This lead to an increase in population
Also lead to development of animal domestication
Neolithic or “New Stone Age”
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Beginning of permanent and semi-permanent settlements
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This led to the rise of villages and small cities
This helped to stabilize society
There was the rapid intensification of trade
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Exchange of commodities and new ideas
Increase in wealth
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Social stratification
Rise of a new class of social elites
There was also the rise of specialization
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Included the rise of priestly class
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Neolithic cutlery and foodstuffs found in Switzerland
Civilization
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Civilization:
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A complex culture in which large numbers of human beings
share a number of common elements
Emerged between 6,500 to 3,000 BCE
Historians disagree as to why it came about
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Developed independently in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and
China
“Challenge and Response” theory
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Challenges forced human beings to make the necessary efforts that
led to the rise of civilization
This could be due to material forces surpluses such as food
Or it could be due to non-material forces such as religion
Civilization
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Characteristics of civilization:
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Development of agricultural skills
Rise of specialization
A division of labor
Urban revolution
New political structures including government bureaucracies
and militaries
Distinct religious structures
Advanced technical skills were developed, including the use of
bronze tools
Complex economies, including long-distance trade
New social structures based on economic power
Development of writing
Civilization in Mesopotamia
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Located in the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys
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Desert region
River flood enriches the soil near the rivers
Flooding was very unpredictable
Development of irrigation systems
Governments were theocracies
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Priests and priestesses had great power
Temples owned much of the city land and livestock
Over time, they had to share their power with kings
The kings received their power from the gods and they were
seen as agents of the gods
Civilization in Mesopotamia
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Economy was primarily agricultural
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Foreign trade was primarily a royal monopoly
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Industry and commerce rose in importance as well
Traded such goods as wool, barley, wheat, copper, tin, aromatic
woods, fruit trees
Mesopotamian society was broken into three classes
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Nobles
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Commoners (free citizens)
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This included royal and priestly officials and their families
90% of population were farmers
Slaves
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The richest people tended to own the most and talented slaves
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The Sumerians
Sumerians (c. 6000 to 2500 BCE)
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The Sumerians inhabited southern Mesopotamia
Ubaid Period (5900-4300 BCE)
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Sophisticated irrigation systems
Intense temple-building
Development of a religious structure
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Included the rise of a priestly class
Priests were responsible for managing economic resources
Uruk Period (4300-2900 BCE)
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The first city-states start to develop
Temple building more prominent and elaborate
Writing also developed during this period
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Sumerian clay ball
with tokens
Development of Writing
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“Token and ball” system
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Objects would be represented with clay tokens
Would then be used in a transaction
This was later replaced with writing on clay tablets
Pictographs
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Earliest writing systems
Symbols that resembled the physical object they represented
Evolved into representing ideas as well as objects
Eventually represented a particular phonetic sound
Development of Writing
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Cuneiform (c. 3100 BCE)
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Abstract writing
Used a durable reed stylus
Cuneus – Wedge shaped impression in clay
Symbols became more and more abstract
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Used for every possible consonant-vowel combination
It was difficult to master and took years to learn
“Houses of the Tablet”
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Evolution of writing
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Cuneiform tablet
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c. 2300 BCE
Early Dynastic Period (2900-2350 BCE)
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Period of constant warfare between the city-states
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Cities grew in size from 10,000 to over 50,000 people
This made competition for resources more intense
Rise of war leaders (lugals)
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Held the status of king
Acted as both secular and religious figures
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They led the armies of their gods into battle
It was important to them to remain in their god’s favor
Replaced the priests as the leaders of the communities
Because of constant warfare, no one lugal became
dominant
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Statue of a man
worshiping
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Early Dynastic Period
(c.2750-2600BCE)
Sumerian Religion
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Religion played a major role in the Sumerian city-states
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Sumerian pantheon included around 1,500 gods
Each city felt that their city was the property of one particular
god or goddess
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Therefore, they sought to glorify by exalting their own city
The physical environment had a major impact on how the
Sumerians viewed the world
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Massive floods, heavy downpours, oppressive humidity, and
scorching winds
Suffered from the famines that resulted from these disasters
According to Sumerian myth, humans were created to do the
manual labor the gods were unwilling to do themselves
Sumerian Religion
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They were afraid of being punished by the gods if they did
not worship and praise them enough
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Development of divination
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They sought to appease—or not be punished by—the gods
Performed rituals and sacrifices
“Land of No Return”
They wanted to discover what the gods were going to do
Believed the gods would give some sort of sign or omen
Rituals and prayers were developed to influence the gods
and ward off demons
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However, the only people who knew these rituals and prayers
were the priests
Sumerian Technology and Trade
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They learned how to smelt tin and copper into bronze
which ushered in the Bronze Age (c. 3000 BCE)
They used the wheel for transport
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Oldest known wheel in Mesopotamia dated to c. 3,500 BCE
Were used for two-wheel chariots and four-wheel carts
Development of math system
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Based on 60, using combinations of 6 and 10 for practical
solutions
Used multiplication and division and created tables for the
computation of interest
Geometry was used for building domes and arches
Sumerian Technology and Trade
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The Sumerians developed astronomy
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Development of a lunar calendar
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They charted the chief constellations
Had 354 days based on a 12 month lunar year
An extra month was added to bring it into sync with the solar
year
They also developed a complex trade system
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They traded for raw materials that they did not possess
They built trade routes throughout the Mesopotamian region
Expanded to the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean
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Akkadian Empire
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c. 2300 BCE
Akkadian Empire (2350-2160 BCE)
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Akkadians
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From Mesopotamia but north of Sumer
They had been influenced by the Sumerians
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Shared similar cultures but each retained their own language
Sumerians considered the Akkadians to be “outsiders” and
barbarians
Sargon (c. 2334-2279 BCE)
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The leader of the Akkadians
According to legend, as a baby a gardener found him floating
down a river in a basket
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Bust believed to be
of Sargon of Akkad
Akkadian Empire (2350-2160 BCE)
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Sargon was best known for being the first person to unify
the Sumerian city-states
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He did this by conquering them and adding them to his own
empire
He established a new dynastic empire
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Included Mesopotamia to the Mediterranean
Placed fellow Akkadians in power as governors of the cities
Exploited the already developed trade routes to strengthen the
base of his empire
His economic influence stretched as far away as Ethiopia and
India
Akkadian Empire (2350-2160 BCE)
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Naram-Sin (2255 – 2219 BCE)
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He continued the expansion of the empire
He was a promoter of culture and a patron of the arts
He also claimed to be “the god of Agade” (Akkad)
He was followed by a group of three weak successors
who were unable to preserve the empire
The reasons why the Akkadians were successful:
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Shared almost everything with the Sumerians except language
Respected the Sumerian religion and gods
Were able to create a unified government where the
Sumerians were unable to
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Naram-Sin’s victory stele (Louvre)
Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2100-1900 BCE)
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Ur-Nammu of Ur (2047-2030 BCE)
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Modeled his kingship on Sargon and Naram-Sin
Pursued military conquests and centralizing the government
Code of Ur-Nammu
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Shulgi (2029-1982 BCE)
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Earliest legal code
Required the payment of fines for most crimes
He continued the successful empire
Built the Great Ziggurat of Ur
Ibbi-Sin (1963-1940 BCE)
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He was too weak to rule
This marked the decline of the Ur dynasty
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Reconstructed façade for the Great Ziggurat of Ur
Third Dynasty of Ur (2100-2000 BCE)
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Sumerian Renaissance
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The Ur dynasty brought about a renaissance in culture
However, this did not have a lasting effect on the region
Other groups would have more of an influence in the region
over the next 1,500 years
The Epic of Gilgamesh (c. 2000 BCE)
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Earliest known piece of literature
It was based on a series of poems written
Gilgamesh was the legendary king of Uruk (c. 2700 BCE)
Tales about military conquest and heroism
Gilgamesh v. Enkidu – city v. wilderness
Pessimistic toward natural environment
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Old Babylonian Empire
Old Babylonian Empire (c. 1900-1595 BCE)
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Babylon was a small city-state in central Mesopotamia
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It was controlled by the Amorites
Location between rivers gave it great economic and military
significance
Also between two powerful Amorite cities
Hammurabi (1792-1750 BCE)
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He was the sixth king of Babylon
One of the first rulers to conquer through diplomacy rather
than sheer force
Part of his strategy was through diplomacy and writing
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Hammurabi
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(1792-1750 BCE)
Old Babylonian Empire (c. 1900-1595 BCE)
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Hammurabi organized all of Babylonia under Marduk
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Marduk was the god of Babylon
Still respected the other gods but Marduk was the dominant
god of the empire
Used Marduk’s supremacy over the other gods as his
justification to rule
Code of Hammurabi
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A collection of laws used throughout his empire
Contained 282 laws which regulated people’s relationships
throughout Mesopotamia
Based on actual rulings handed down by Hammurabi
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The Code of
Hammurabi
The Code of Hammurabi
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The Code was probably never intended to be a code of
laws in the modern sense
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Was used as propaganda to publicize the king’s devotion to
justice
It reveals a society with strict justice
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Lists three classes: the elite, the masses, and slaves
Penalties were severe but they were adjusted based on the
social class of the parties involved
Reflected issues and responsibilities the government had to
deal with
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This included slavery, land tenure, commerce, consumer protection,
and marriage
The Code of Hammurabi
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Punishments for crimes varied according to one’s social
class
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Crimes against the upper class were punished more severely
Crimes against the lower class were punished more leniently
Old Babylonian Society
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Upper class nobles controlled large estates and wealth
Below the nobles, an enormous class of legally free individuals
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“Dependents” of the palace or temple
Laborers, artisans, small merchants, farmers and officials
At the bottom were the slaves
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In general, the slaves were treated harshly
Slaves acquired through trade or captured in war
Development of Civilization in Egypt
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The Nile River was of central importance to Egyptian
civilization
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Annual flooding of the Nile created miles of fertile land for
growing crops
Egyptian civilization developed along very different lines
than Mesopotamia
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Annual flooding of the Nile was predictable
Land around the Nile did not require extensive irrigation
State intervention was not necessary for food production so
the villages remained small and rural
Development of Civilization in Egypt
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Nile River valley was protected by natural barriers
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The Nile became the unifying factor for Egypt
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Desert to the east and west
Rapids (cataracts) to the south
Gave a sense of isolation and security
Still had access to the Mediterranean to the north so they
were not any trade barriers for Egyptians
The fastest way to travel throughout the land
Made transportation and communication much easier
Because of the stability and reliability of the Nile, the
Egyptians had a sense of security and changelessness
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Figurine of a woman
from predynastic
Egypt
c.3500-3400BCE
Predynastic Egypt (10,000 – 3100 BCE)
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The period prior to the emergence of the pharaohs
Agriculture did not emerge until 5,000 BCE
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The Nile valley region was able to supply an abundance of food
for long periods of time
Increased population
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The first cities appeared in Upper Egypt around 3,200 BCE, all
near the Nile
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Sophisticated fortifications
Elaborate temples
Attracted industry and travelers
High degrees of social specialization
Rivalry developed between Upper and Lower Egypt
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Narmer Palette
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c. 3100 BCE
Organization of Egyptian History
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Manetho (c. 3rd century BCE)
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Set the basic framework for Egyptian history
In his Aegyptiaca, he divided the rulers by dynasties
Today, Egyptian history is divided into three major periods
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Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms
These were periods were each marked with:
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Long-term stability with strong monarchical authority and competent
administrations
Construction of temples and pyramids
Freedom from invasion
Intellectual and cultural activities
Between the periods are Intermediate Periods
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Characterized by political chaos, rivalries, and invasions
Archaic Period (3100–c. 2686 BCE)
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By c. 3100 BCE, Upper and Lower Egypt were unified by
King Narmer
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Started the first dynasty
Archaic Period is characterized by:
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Administrative capital at Memphis (Lower Egypt)
First dynastic rulers came into being
Pharaohs were considered divine, not just received divine favor
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Earliest rulers were seen as the earthly manifestation of Horus, the
falcon god
Development of hieroglyphics
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These were “priest-carvings” or “sacred writings” developed during
the first two dynasties
They were pictographs that had a sacred value
Archaic Period (3100–c. 2686 BCE)
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Hieroglyphics were only used by the royal family and the
priest class
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First writings were carved in stone
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A more simple, faster, cursive script (Hieratic Script ) was used
for everyday business of government and commerce
Later the Egyptians made paper out of papyrus reed
The first uses of papyrus came during the First Dynasty
The ability to translate hieroglyphics came about with the
discovery of the Rosetta Stone in 1799
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It contained three different forms of writing: hieroglyphs,
demotic, and classical Greek
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The Rosetta
Stone
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Close up of the hieroglyphics
Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE)
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Includes the 3rd through 6th Dynasties
Unable to reconstruct an accurate history of this period
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So few documents exist to piece together a complete history
Pharaohs were viewed as gods and were absolute rulers
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However, the pharaoh was required to follow the Ma’at
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This was a general concept of morality, law, and justice
Pharaohs were divine instruments that were to maintain order
and harmony
Subjects were to obey the king to help keep the “cosmic
order”
Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE)
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Pharaohs had a well-developed bureaucracy to help them
run the empire
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A vizier was in charge of administration
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During this period, pharaohs were involved more in religious
matters than political ones
This included justice, public works, police, etc.
The pharaohs also appointed provincial governors
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They were known as nomarchs
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Tended to be family members of the pharaoh
Pharaoh had to keep tight reins on them to keep them from
establishing a power base in their provinces (nomes)
Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE)
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An age of prosperity and splendor
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This is illustrated by the building of the great pyramids
The pyramids were built as part of a “city of the dead”
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It included a large pyramid for the pharaoh
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Contained all the articles a person would need for the after-life
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Smaller pyramids for his family
Included furniture, weapons, and food
The original pyramids began as mastabas
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These were rectangular structures with flat roofs that served
as tombs
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An Egyptian Mastaba
Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE)
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Why did the Egyptians build such elaborate tombs?
The Egyptians believed that people had two bodies: a
physical one and a spiritual one (ka)
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By preserving the body through mummification, the ka could
return to it
The tomb was furnished with goods from everyday life to help
the ka resume its life after death
Mummification was a process of slowly drying out and
preserving a body to prevent it from rotting
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The Egyptians first used mummification c. 3000 BCE
It was not perfected until the New Kingdom
Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE)
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Process of mummification:
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First the intestines, stomach, lungs, and liver would be removed
and placed in a special jar (canopic jars)
The heart would remain inside the body because that was
needed for the “weighing of the heart”
The brain was then removed through the nose with a special
tool
Salt would be placed on the body to absorb moisture
The body would then be filled with spices and wrapped in
layers of resin-soaked linen
The whole process from start to finish would take
approximately 70 days
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Mummification of pharaohs and their queens usually took the
longest
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The Step Pyramid
Step Pyramid
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The Step Pyramid was built during the 3rd Dynasty during
the reign of King Djoser (c. 2630 BCE)
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It was designed by Imhotep, a priest of Heliopolis
He probably designed it by building one mastaba on top of
another
The first “real” pyramid was built during the 4th Dynasty
(c. 2600 BCE)
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Each side was filled in to make a flat sloped surface
Built during the reign of King Snefru
He went on to build a total of three pyramids
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Great Pyramid at Giza
Great Pyramid at Giza
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This was built c. 2540 BC by King Snefru’s son, King
Khufu
Contains three pyramids
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Covers a total of 13 acres
Great Pyramid is 756 feet on each side of its base and stands
481 feet high
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Its four sides are almost precisely oriented to each of the four points
of the compass
Recent research suggests that small groups of skilled
workers were used in the construction
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In the case of the Great Pyramid, between 20,000 to 30,000
people were used and it took approximately 20 years to build
Number of workers were reduced during the growing season
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What the Great Pyramid would have looked like
Ancient Egyptian Society
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Four social classes:
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Pharaoh or god-king
Upper Class
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Middle Class
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Merchants, artisans, and craftspeople
Peasants
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Nobles and priests
Largest percentage of the population
They worked the king’s lands, and building projects, paid taxes in the
forms of crops, and provided military service
Slaves
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Typically captives of foreign wars but they did have legal rights,
including the right to own personal property
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Osiris and Isis
Egyptian Religion
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Egyptian religion was polytheistic
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They had over 150 gods in their pantheon
Henotheistic – Worshipped mainly one god but recognize
many others
One of the most important deities was Osiris
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Egyptians believed that Osiris was the one who brought
civilization to Egypt
According to the myth, Osiris was killed by his brother Seth,
who then cut his body into 14 pieces and threw those into the
Nile
Isis, his wife, found the pieces and restored him to life
Egyptian Religion
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Because of this, Osiris became a symbol of resurrection
and the judge of the dead in Egyptian religion
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When a person was died, he was mummified and given the
name “Osiris” so he could be reborn
Celebrations were held each year for the flooding of the Nile
to symbolize Isis gathering Osiris’ parts and the start of new
life
The Egyptians did not have a negative view of the afterlife
like the Mesopotamians had
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They saw death as a necessary step to the afterlife
They believed the afterlife was to be better than their current
lives
Egyptian Religion
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The Egyptians a positive viewpoint not only of the
afterlife, but their current lives as well
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Elaborate rituals took place when a death occurred
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They believed they lived in a stable, paradise-like universe,
governed by the Ma’at
They were connected to their gods through their pharaoh
This included embalming and mummification as well as burying
items with the deceased
A “Book of the Dead” was also buried with the corpse
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It contained information that the deceased would need to
know for the afterlife
This included spells, incantations, and preparations for the
ultimate test: the “weighing of the heart”
Egyptian Religion
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“Weighing of the Heart”
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When a person died, he met with Osiris and other deities to
weigh his heart against a feather
The feather itself represented the Ma’at
The heart would be weighed by Anubis, the god of the dead
and mummification
If it was balanced, the deceased could move on
If the heart was too heavy, Ammut (Devourer of the Dead)
was there to eat the deceased
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Weighing of the heart from the Book of the Dead
Old Kingdom Science and Technology
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Astronomy was based on the sun
Their solar calendar was more accurate than the
Mesopotamians lunar one
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Developed irrigation and water control systems
Did not develop the wheel until much later


It was later adopted by Julius Caesar
This was because of the number of workers available so there
was no need for it
There was no written legal code

Whatever the pharaoh proclaimed was law
End of the Old Kingdom

Several problems led to the end of the Old Kingdom


During this time, nomarchs grew in power




Period of the 5th and 6th Dynasties
Part of this was due to their positions becoming hereditary
The nomes became more independent and the central
authority of the pharaoh weakened
People’s loyalty switch from the pharaohs to the nomarchs
Egypt also was plagued with famines at this time


Low Nile flooding led to crop failures and economic decline
People blamed the pharaoh for disrupting the Ma’at
End of the Old Kingdom

Because of all of these problems, the priesthood of Ra at
Nekhen “demoted” the pharaohs



They were transformed from being an incarnation of Horus
and Ra to the lowly position of being the son of a god
This was done in order to wrest power away from weaker
pharaohs
The nomarchs then used the situation to seize control

Many saw them and priests as the only ones who could
guarantee stability and order
First Intermediate Period (2160-2055 BC)


Included the 7th through 11th Dynasties
During this period, a unified country no longer existed


Divided into Upper and Lower Egypt
Rival dynasties were created with new centers of power



Thebes in Upper Egypt
Henen-nesut in Lower Egypt
It was not until 2055 BC that Egypt was reunified


King Mentuhotep, King of Thebes (Upper Egypt), defeated the
rulers of Lower Egypt and then declared that he was ruler of
all Egypt
His reign marks the beginning of the Middle Kingdom

Stele of Amenemhat I (c. 1938 BCE)
Middle Kingdom (c. 2050-c. 1650 BCE)

The Middle Kingdom period contained the 11th through
13th dynasties



The 12th Dynasty (1991-1802 BCE) was the dominant dynasty
during this period
This was considered the “golden age” for Egypt
During this time, nomes were restructured


They were given permanent boundaries and the position of
nomarch was officially made hereditary
On the other hand, the nomarchs were required to know what
their duties were and perform them accordingly
Middle Kingdom (c. 2050-c. 1650 BCE)

This was also a period of expansionism



Egyptian forces conquered parts of Nubia to the south and
built fortresses to protect its new borders
They started expeditions into Palestine and Syria
Pharaohs began embracing the idea of a co-regency




It was first set up by Amenemhet I (1991-1962 BCE)
He made his son as a co-ruler to prepare him for his future
position
This was designed to prevent any succession problems or inept
rulers
He was killed by the royal bodyguards in 1962 BCE
Middle Kingdom (c. 2050-c. 1650 BCE)

Egypt became more cynical during this period

There was a change in the perception of the pharaoh




The pharaohs were no longer seen as inaccessible god-kings who
were higher than the people
Having ma’at was not enough
Pharaoh had to protect his people, he was seen as a “shepherd” to
protect his “flock”
Pharaohs no longer trusted those around them


After the assassination of Amenemhat, even the pharaohs became
cynical
They began writing letters to their successors warning them of the
constant threats and not to expect any loyalty from the people