Download Rhetoric

Rhetoric and/as Strategic
Manoeuvring
STRATEGIC MANOEUVRING
IN ARGUMENTATIVE
CONFRONTATIONS,
Panel convened by Frans van Eemeren & Peter
Houtlosser.
Discussant: Igor Z. Zagar, Educational Research
Institute & University of Primorska
E-mail: [email protected]
WWW: www.igorzagar.net
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
Manoeuvring
- “In pragma-dialectics dialectic is defined
pragmatically as a method for dealing
systematically with critical exchanges in
verbal communication and interaction ‘that
amounts to the pragmatic application of
logic, a collaborative method of putting
logic into use so as to move from
conjecture and opinion to more secure
belief’” (van Eemeren et al., 1996: 214).
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
Manoeuvring
 “As
far as it is pertinent to pragmadialectics, rhetoric is the theoretical study
of the potential effectiveness of
argumentative discourse in convincing or
persuading an audience in actual
argumentative practice.” (Van Eemeren &
Houtlosser, 2007)
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
Rhetoric and/as Strategic
Manoeuvring
“...the gap between dialectic and rhetoric can be
bridged by introducing the theoretical concept of
‘strategic manoeuvring’ (van Eemeren &
Houtlosser, 2002). Strategic manoeuvring
refers to the efforts arguers make in
argumentative discourse to reconcile aiming
for rhetorical effectiveness with maintaining
dialectical standards of reasonableness.”
(Van Eemeren & Houtlosser, 2007)
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
Manoeuvring
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-
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SM and (some) historical background:
Plato and Aristotle or Plato vs. Aristotle
Plato: search for truth
two kinds of rhetoric:
sophistical rhetoric (logographia) >
rhetoric of probability/illusion (Gorgias)
philosophical rhetoric (psukhagogia) >
dialectics (Phaidros)
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
Manoeuvring
-
dialectic (as education of souls) =
eroticized rhetoric
eroticized rhetoric – the gist of the Socratic
method
principles of Socratic method?
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
Manoeuvring
Aristotle: search for knowledge
- the inventory of (almost) everything (»map
of learning«)
- Logic: universal and necessary
- Dialectic: general and possible
- Rhetoric: particular and probable
-
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
Manoeuvring
BUT: there is no gap between rhetoric and
dialectic, or between dialectic and logic.
- RATHER:
- dialectic is necessary to consolidate
(among other things) the first principles of
logic/science;
- while rhetoric (in a way) gives grounds for
dialectical enterprise.
-
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
Manoeuvring
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The two Zenos:
Zeno the Stoicist (after Plato and Aristotle)
rhetoric = an open hand (palm)
dialectic = a fist
- difference of method, because the addressees
are different, while the goal is the same: to
persuade (about what?)
-
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
Manoeuvring
Zeno of Elea
credited by Aristotle as the “inventor” of
dialectical arguments
- Dialectical arguments vs. dialectical method/art
- Dialectic (according to Aristotle): a
technique/method of arguing from a special
class of premises called endoxa (“common
beliefs”).
-
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
Manoeuvring
-
A rather famous quote about dialectical method (from Eudemian
Ethics):
“We must try, by argument, to reach a convincing conclusion (zetein
ten pistin) on all these questions, using, as testimony and by way of
example, what appears to be the case. For it would be best if
everyone should turn out to agree with (phainesthai
sunomologountas) what we are going to say; if not that, that they
should all agree in a way and will agree after a change of mind
(hoper metabibazomenoi poiesousin); for each man has something
of his own to contribute to the finding of the truth (echei gar hekastos
oikeion ti pros ten aletheian); and it is from such <starting-points>
that we must demonstrate: beginning with things that are
correctly said, but not clearly, as we proceed we shall come to
express them clearly, with what is more perspicuous at each
stage superseding what is customarily expressed in a confused
fashion.” (1216b26-35)
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
Manoeuvring
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From the Topics:
“Sometimes, even if a falsehood has been supposed, it
should be refuted by means of falsehoods. For nothing
prevents things which are not so seeming more so to
some individual than what is true, so that if the argument
arises from what seems so to that person, he will be
more effectively persuaded or benefited. And whoever
changes minds (metabibazonta) well must change them
dialectically, not contentiously (just as the geometer must
do so geometrically), no matter whether the
conclusion drawn is false or true.” (161a30-36)
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
Manoeuvring
The point of the passage: dialectical arguments
are always directed at someone and rely on that
person's opinions. If my goal is to persuade you,
it will do me no good to use true premises which
you do not believe.
- Which is to say: To 'change minds' is to lead
people to have different beliefs, and that can
only be accomplished rationally by beginning
with beliefs they actually do have.
- Rhetorical strategy par excellence: not
discovering the truth but persuading others to
believe (it).
-
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
Manoeuvring
Another definition of dialectical method (Topics, first
sentence):
“...a method from which we will be able to syllogize from
common beliefs (endoxa) about every topic
proposed to us, and will say nothing conflicting when
we give an account ourselves.”
- One of the definitions of rhetoric (in Rhetoric): rhetorical
art is a kind of hybrid of the dialectical art (dialektike) and
ethics: orations are directed at individuals, and we must
understand the opinions they have in order to persuade
them.
-
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
Manoeuvring
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But, what is persuasive?
Rhetoric (1356b28-35): “For since what is persuasive is persuasive
to someone (and sometimes is directly persuasive and convincing
through itself, sometimes because of appearing to be proved
through such things), but no art investigates the particular (e.g.,
medicine does not investigate what is healthful for Socrates or
Callias, but rather what is so for this type or these types of personfor this is artful, but the individual is infinite (apeiron) and not
knowable (episteton)), then neither will rhetoric study what is
individually acceptable (to kath' hekaston endoxon), e.g., to
Socrates or to Hippias, but rather what is so <sc. endoxon> to suchand-such people (tois toioisdi), just like dialectic.”
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
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What is the difference between demonstration,
dialectic, and rhetoric?
- Demonstration: starting from the “first principles”,
conclusion entailed by its premises, no dialog
(two parties) needed;
- Dialectic: discusses, not establishes, these first
principles (among other things);
- Rhetoric: provides the tools and means for any
kind of discussion (dialectical as well).
-
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
Manoeuvring
- “Strategic manoeuvring manifests itself in
argumentative discourse in the choices
that are made from the ‘topical potential’
available at a certain stage in the
discourse, in ‘audience-directed framing’
of the argumentative moves, and in the
purposive use of ‘presentational
devices.’” (Van Eemeren & Houtlosser,
2007)
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
Manoeuvring
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Five canons of rhetoric (officia oratoris):
INVENTIO (finding arguments)
- DISPOSITIO (arranging arguments)
- ELOCUTIO (putting arguments into words)
-
MEMORIA (memorizing the speech)
- ACTIO (delivering the speech)
-
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
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INVENTIO (in three steps):
1.
Stasis (status causae)
Rhetorical analysis
Questions and topics
2.
3.
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
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Ad 1/1: Stasis
1)
2)
3)
4)
Stasis of conjecture/fact
Stasis of definition
Stasis of quality
Stasis of place
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
Manoeuvring
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Ad 1/2: Illustration from pseudo-Augustine (RLM 143.25
– 145.33 Halm):
P(rosecutor): The general is guilty of murder.
D(efendant): The killing was lawful.
J(ury):
Was the killing lawful?
P:
He killed a soldier.
D:
I killed him because he swore he
would desert.
J:
Was it lawful for the general to kill the soldier
he swore he would desert?
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
Manoeuvring
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Ad 2: Rhetorical analysis (in three steps):
1) Kairos
2) The public
3) Decorum
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
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- Ad 2/2: decorum (four elements):
Correctness
2) Clarity
3) Vividness
4) Ornateness
Categories of change?
1)
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
Manoeuvring
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Ad 2/3: Caveat in relation to SM:
“... Among the modes of expression that can
be used as presentational devices, par
excellence, are the various kinds of
‘figures’ known from classical rhetoric and
dialectic.” (Van Eemeren & Houtlosser,
2007)
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
Manoeuvring
Ad 3: Topics:
Common Topics
Definition
Genus / Species
Division
Whole / Parts
Subject / Adjuncts
Comparison
Similarity / Difference
Degree
Relationship
Cause / Effect
Antecedent / Consequence
Contraries
Contradictions
Circumstances
Possible / Impossible
Past Fact / Future Fact
Testimony
Authorities
Witnesses
Maxims or Proverbs
Rumors
Oaths
Documents
Law
Precedent
The supernatural
Notation and Conjugates
-
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
Manoeuvring
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Ad 3/2: Topics:
Judicial
justice (right)
injustice (wrong)
Deliberative
the good
the unworthy
the advantageous
the disadvantageous
Ceremonial
virtue (the noble)
vice (the base)
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
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Could be continued ...
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
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The point of all these comments?
1. Systematic integration of rhetorical
insight into pragma-dialectical framework
is (more than) necessary and welcome.
BUT
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
Manoeuvring
2. There is much more in (classical)
rhetoric that pragma-dialectic
could take and profit from in order
to become more flexible and,
consequently, more applicable.
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Rhetoric and/as Strategic
Manoeuvring
For this very occasion the references
are ommited...
Many thanks!
[email protected]
www.igorzagar.net
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