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Chapter 8
Business Income, Deductions,
and Accounting Methods
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Learning Objectives
1)
Describe the general requirements for deducting business
expenses and identify common business deductions.
2)
Apply the limitations on business deductions to distinguish
between deductible and nondeductible business expenses.
3)
Identify and explain special business deductions specifically
permitted under the tax laws.
4)
Explain the concept of an accounting period and describe
accounting periods available to businesses.
5)
Identify and describe accounting methods available to businesses
and apply cash and accrual methods to determine business
income and expense deductions.
8-2
Business income and
deductions

Schedule C – Trade or business income




Includes revenue from services and sales activities.
Gross profit from sales - cost of goods is a return of
capital.
Business income does not include excluded and deferred
income.
Deductions must be directly connected to business
activity.


Ordinary and necessary means conducive to profit
generation.
Reasonable in amount means not extravagant.
8-3
Reasonableness example
Rick owns a business that employs his
brother, Ben. Ben is paid $45,000 per year by
Rick’s business.
In comparison, other employees with Ben’s
responsibilities are only paid $30,000 per
year.
What is Rick’s business deduction for
employing Ben?
8-4
Statutory limits on business
expense deductions
1.
Expenses against public policy

2.
Expenses relating to tax-exempt income


3.
4.
No deduction for fines, bribes, lobby
expenditures, or political contributions
Interest on loan where proceeds invested in
municipal bonds.
Key man insurance premiums – no deduction if
business is beneficiary of life insurance.
Capital expenditures
Personal expenses
8-5
Capital expenditures
Does the expenditure provide future benefit
(beyond this year)?

If so, capitalize rather than deduct.
12-month rule for prepaid expenses:


Deduct if benefit < 12 months and
Benefits do not extend beyond end of next tax
year.
Does not apply to interest.
8-6
12-month rule example
Ben, a cash basis taxpayer, makes the
following payments on June 30 of this year:



$10,000 for the next 10 months of utilities.
$12,000 for insurance over the next 24 months.
$9,600 for the next 8 months of interest on a
business loan.
What amounts are deductible this year?
8-7
Special business deductions

Start-up and organizational expenditures


Bad debts


Expense up to $5,000 and capitalize/amortize the rest.
Accrual taxpayers can only use direct write-off method.
Losses on disposition of business assets

Recognized losses are deductible

Casualty losses are limited to lesser of decline in value
(repair cost) or basis.

Basis is amount of loss if business asset is completely
destroyed.
8-8
Domestic production activities
deduction (DPAD)

An “artificial” deduction that subsidizes domestic
manufacturing.



Domestic production of tangible products qualifies for
subsidy but income must be allocated between qualifying
and nonqualifying activities.
Subsidy is percentage (9 percent) of the lesser of qualified
production activities income (QPAI) or modified AGI.
Formula:


QPAI = domestic production gross receipts less expenses
attributed to domestic production.
Deduction is ultimately limited to 50% of wages allocated
to qualified activities.
8-9
DPAD example
Brian recorded $100,000 of receipts from a qualified
domestic production activity.
Brian allocated $55,000 of expenses to the qualified
domestic production activity including $12,000 of
wages.
Brian had modified AGI of $47,000.
What is Brian’s domestic production activities
deduction?
8-10
Business expenses with personal
benefits

No deduction for purely personal expenditures



unless otherwise allowable – e.g. charity, medical, etc.
Mixed motive?

Primary motive for some expenditures (all or nothing).
 Business travel (away from home overnight).

Otherwise, allocate deduction to business portion.
 Arbitrary percentage (50% meals and entertainment).
 Basis for allocation (mileage or time).
Recordkeeping

Document business purpose.
8-11
Travel example
Ben paid the following to attend a business
meeting in Chicago:
Airfare (first class) - $ 1,200
Hotel (three nights) - $ 750
Meals (three days) - $ 270
1.
2.
What amounts are deductible if Ben spent two
days in meetings (primarily business)?
What amounts are deductible if Ben spent one
day in a meeting (primarily personal)?
8-12
Accounting for taxable income


We’ve learned to identify:

Business gross income and

Deductible expenses
Now we need to match income and
deductions to a specific period.

Accounting methods match income and expense
to a specific period.
8-13
Accounting periods


Annual period

Full tax year is 12 months long.

Short tax year is < 12 months.
Year ends

Calendar year ends 12/31.

Fiscal year end depends upon choice:

Last day of a month (not December).

52/53 week year end is the same day of a specific
month.
8-14
Choosing an accounting period

Proprietorships – same as proprietor.

“C” corporations and individuals – choice
made on first tax return and is consistent with
book accounting period.

Flow-thru entities – a “required” tax year.

Match to owners’ period (multiple owners for
partnerships so this can be complicated).
8-15
Accounting methods

Comparison of financial and tax methods

Financial accounting is “conservative”
GAAP is slow to recognize income, but quick to
recognize losses or expenses.
 Objective is to avoid misleading investors & creditors.


Tax accounting is much less conservative.
Quick to recognize income but likely to defer
deductions.
 Objective of Congress is to maximize tax revenues.

8-16
Accounting methods

Permissible “overall” methods:

Cash – recognize income when received.

Accrual – recognize income when earned or
received (whichever is first generally).

Hybrid – mix of accrual and cash depending
upon accounts (e.g. sales on accrual).

Methods are adopted with first tax return.

Large corporations must use accrual.
8-17
Cash method



Income recognized when actually or constructively
received.
Expenses recognized when paid.
Pros and cons:




Flexible.
Simple and relatively inexpensive.
Not GAAP – poor matching of income and expense.
Not available for some business organizations (large C
corporations typically).
8-18
Accrual income

Income is recognized when earned or received.

All-events test – recognize income when all the events
have occurred which fix the right to receive such
income and


the amount can be determined with reasonable accuracy
Earliest of these dates:

Complete service or sale

Payment is due

Payment is received
8-19
Accrual question
Ben provides consulting services and bills Ace for
$12,000. Ace disputes the amount claiming that
$8,000 is the proper amount.
How much income should Ben recognize under
the accrual method this year?
$ ________
8-20
Accrual – prepaid income


Advance payments for services:

Allowed to defer recognition for one year unless income is
earned or recognized for financial records.

Not applicable to payments relating to rent or interest
income.
Advance payments for goods:

Elect one of two methods of recognition.

Full inclusion method – recognize prepayments as income.

Deferral method – include in period earned for tax or
financial purposes.
8-21
Advance payment example
Ben provides dancing lessons. On September
30th of this year he received $2,400 full
payment for a 2-year service contract.
What amount of income must Ben recognize:
(1) if he is on the cash method?
(2) if he is on the accrual method?
8-22
Inventories


Inventories must be accounted for under the
accrual method if sales of goods constitute a
“material” income producing factor.

Purchases accrued with accounts payable.

Sales accrued with accounts receivable.
Cash method taxpayers may use cash method
for other (non-inventory) accounts.

Technique is called the “hybrid” method.
8-23
UNICAP

Inventory (purchased or produced) must be accounted
for using tax version of “full absorption” rules.

Indirect costs are allocated to inventories (not
expensed).
Costs of selling, advertising, and research need
not be capitalized.
Exception for “small” businesses (average
annual gross receipts < $10 million).


8-24
Inventory flow assumptions

First-in, First-out (FIFO)

Last-in, Last-out (LIFO)




Same method for financial and tax records
“Book-tax conformity” requirement
Generates lowest taxable income in time of
inflation.
Specific identification
8-25
Accruing business expenses
1. All-events test



All events have occurred to establish the liability
to pay.
The amount is determinable with reasonable
accuracy.
Reserves for future liabilities not allowed.
2. Economic performance has occurred.
8-26
Economic performance


Applies to accrual method taxpayers only
Taxpayer provides goods or services:


Performance occurs as taxpayer provides goods or
services.
Taxpayer using property or goods:


Performance occurs as goods are provided or
economic performance is otherwise expected within 3 ½
months of payment.

Payment liabilities are performed only when paid.

Interest and rent occurs ratably.
8-27
Economic performance
example
Ben has signed a binding contract for Peter to
provide Ben with repair services. Ben paid $1,500
to Peter and owes an additional $6,000 on the
contract. The repairs will commence late next year.
When can Ben claim the deduction if he uses the
accrual method?
8-28
Choosing or changing an
accounting method


Accounting methods are generally adopted by use.

A permissible method is adopted by using and reporting
the method for one year.

An impermissible method is adopted by using and
reporting the method for two years.
Generally method changes require IRS permission.

Some changes are automatic.

Permission is necessary to correct the use of an
impermissible method.
8-29
Chapter Summary
LO1: we learned how to identify common business
deductions.
LO2: we applied various statutory limitations to
determine deductible amounts.
LO3: we reviewed the special deductions specifically
allowed for businesses.
LO4: we reviewed the accounting periods available for
calculating business income.
LO5: we summarized and compared the accrual and
cash methods of accounting for income and
deductions.
8-30