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Ancient Egypt
The History of Ancient Egypt spans the period from the early predynastic settlements of the northern Nile Valley
to the Roman conquest in 30 BC. The Pharaonic Period is dated from around 3150 BC, when Lower and Upper
Egypt became a unified state, until the country fell under Greek rule in 332 BC. Egypt's history is split into several
different periods according to the dynasty of the ruling of each pharaoh. The dating of events is still a subject of
research. The conservative dates are not supported by any reliable absolute date for a span of about three
millennia. The following is the list according to conventional Egyptian chronology.
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Predynastic Period (Prior to 3100 BC)
Protodynastic Period (Approximately 3100 - 3000 BC)
Early Dynastic Period (1st–2nd Dynasties)
Old Kingdom (3rd–6th Dynasties)
First Intermediate Period (7th–11th Dynasties)
Middle Kingdom (12th–13th Dynasties)
Second Intermediate Period (14th–17th Dynasties)
New Kingdom (18th–20th Dynasties)
Third Intermediate Period (21st–25th Dynasties) (also known as the Libyan Period)
Late Period (26th–31st Dynasties)
Dynastic Egypt
Early dynastic period
The historical records of ancient Egypt begin with Egypt as a unified state, which occurred sometime around 3150
BC. According to Egyptian tradition Menes, thought to have unified Upper and Lower Egypt, was the first king.
This Egyptian culture, customs, art expression, architecture, and social structure was closely tied to religion,
remarkably stable, and changed little over a period of nearly 3000 years. Egyptian chronology, which involves
regnal years, began around this time. The conventional Egyptian chronology is the chronology accepted during the
twentieth century, but it does not include any of the major revision proposals that also have been made in that
time. Even within a single work, archaeologists often will offer several possible dates or even several whole
chronologies as possibilities. Consequently, there may be discrepancies between dates shown here and in articles
on particular rulers or topics related to ancient Egypt. There also are several possible spellings of the names.
Typically, Egyptologists divide the history of pharaonic civilization using a schedule laid out first by Manetho's
Aegyptiaca (History of Egypt) that was written during the Ptolemaic era, during the third century BC.
Prior to the unification of Egypt, the land was settled with autonomous villages. With the early dynasties, and for
much of Egypt's history thereafter, the country came to be known as the Two Lands. The rulers established a
national administration and appointed royal governors.
According to Manetho, the first king was Menes, but archaeological findings support the view that the first
pharaoh to claim to have united the two lands was Narmer (the final king of the Protodynastic Period). His name
is known primarily from the famous Narmer Palette, whose scenes have been interpreted as the act of uniting
Upper and Lower Egypt. Funeral practices for the elite resulted in the construction of mastaba tombs, which later
became models for subsequent Old Kingdom constructions such as the Step pyramid.
Old Kingdom
The Old Kingdom is most commonly regarded as spanning the period of time when Egypt was ruled by the Third
Dynasty through to the Sixth Dynasty (2686 BC – 2134 BC). The royal capital of Egypt during the Old Kingdom
was located at Memphis, where Djoser established his court. The Old Kingdom is perhaps best known, however,
for the large number of pyramids, which were constructed at this time as pharaonic burial places. For this reason,
the Old Kingdom is frequently referred to as "the Age of the Pyramids." The first notable pharaoh of the Old
Kingdom was Djoser (2630–2611 BC) of the Third Dynasty, who ordered the construction of a pyramid (the Step
Pyramid) in Memphis' necropolis, Saqqara. It was in this era that formerly independent ancient Egyptian states
became known as nomes, ruled solely by the pharaoh. Subsequently the former rulers were forced to assume the
role of governors or otherwise work in tax collection. Egyptians in this era worshiped their pharaoh as a god,
believing that he ensured the annual flooding of the Nile that was necessary for their crops.
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The Old Kingdom and its royal power reached their zenith under the Fourth Dynasty. Sneferu, the dynasty's
founder, is believed to have commissioned at least three pyramids; while his son and successor Khufu erected the
Great Pyramid of Giza, Sneferu had more stone and brick moved than any other pharaoh. Khufu (Greek Cheops),
his son Khafra (Greek Chephren), and his grandson Menkaura (Greek Mycerinus), all achieved lasting fame in the
construction of their pyramids. To organize and feed the manpower
needed to create these pyramids required a centralized government
with extensive powers, and Egyptologists believe the Old Kingdom at
this time demonstrated this level of sophistication. Recent excavations
near the pyramids led by Mark Lehner have uncovered a large city
which seems to have housed, fed and supplied the pyramid workers.
Although it was once believed that slaves built these monuments, a
theory based on the biblical Exodus story, study of the tombs of the
workmen, who oversaw construction on the pyramids, has shown they
were built by a corvée of peasants drawn from across Egypt. They
apparently worked while the annual Nile flood covered their fields, as
well as a very large crew of specialists, including stone cutters, painters,
mathematicians and priests. The Fifth Dynasty began with Userkhaf
(2465–2458 BC), who initiated reforms that weakened the central
government. After his reign civil wars arose as the powerful nomarchs
(regional governors) no longer belonged to the royal family. The
worsening civil conflict undermined unity and energetic government
and also caused famines. The final blow came when a severe drought in
the region that resulted in a drastic drop in precipitation between 2200
and 2150 BC, which in turn prevented the normal flooding of the Nile.
The result was the collapse of the Old Kingdom followed by decades of
famine and strife.
Pharaoh Menkaura and his consort Queen Khamerernebty II >>
First Intermediate Period
After the fall of the Old Kingdom came a roughly 200-year stretch of
time known as the First Intermediate Period, which is generally thought
to include a relatively obscure set of pharaohs running from the end of
the Sixth to the Tenth, and most of the Eleventh Dynasty. Most of these were likely local monarchs who did not
hold much power outside of their own limited domain, and none held power over the whole of Egypt. Though
their government was in form of Theocracy, they faithfully respect other governments,. While there are next to
no official records covering this period, there are a number of fictional texts known as Lamentations from the
early period of the subsequent Middle Kingdom that may shed some light on what happened during this period.
Some of these texts reflect on the breakdown of rule, others allude to invasion by "Asiatic bowmen". In general
the stories focus on a society where the natural order of things in both society and nature was overthrown.
It is also highly likely that it was during this period that all of the pyramid and tomb complexes were robbed.
Further lamentation texts allude to this fact, and by the beginning of the Middle Kingdom mummies are found
decorated with magical spells that were once exclusive to the pyramid of the kings of the sixth dynasty.
By 2160 BC a new line of pharaohs (the Ninth and Tenth Dynasties) consolidated Lower Egypt from their capital
in Herakleopolis Magna. A rival line (the Eleventh Dynasty) based at Thebes reunited Upper Egypt and a clash
between the two rival dynasties was inevitable. Around 2055 BC the Theban forces defeated the Heracleopolitan
Pharaohs, reunited the Two Lands. The reign of its first pharaoh, Mentuhotep II marks the beginning of the Middle
Kingdom.
Middle Kingdom
The Middle Kingdom is the period in the history of ancient Egypt stretching from the establishment of the
Eleventh Dynasty to the end of the Fourteenth Dynasty, roughly between 2030 BC and 1640 BC.
The period comprises two phases, the 11th Dynasty, which ruled from Thebes and the 12th Dynasty onwards
which was cantered around el-Lisht. These two dynasties were originally considered to be the full extent of this
unified kingdom, but historians now[12] consider the 13th Dynasty to at least partially belong to the Middle
Kingdom. The earliest pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom traced their origin to a nomarch of Thebes, "Intef the
Great, son of Iku", who is mentioned in a number of contemporary inscriptions. However, his immediate
successor Mentuhotep II is considered the first pharaoh of this dynasty. An inscription carved during the reign of
Wahankh Intef II shows that he was the first of this dynasty to claim to rule over the whole of Egypt, a claim which
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brought the Thebeans into conflict with the rulers of Herakleopolis Magna, the Tenth Dynasty. Intef undertook
several campaigns northwards, and captured the important nome of Abydos.
<< Mentuhotep II, the founder of the Middle Kingdom.
Warfare continued intermittently between the Thebean and
Heracleapolitan dynasts until the 14th regnal year of Nebhetepra
Mentuhotep II, when the Herakleopolitans were defeated, and the
Theban dynasty began to consolidate their rule. Mentuhotep II is
known to have commanded military campaigns south into Nubia,
which had gained its independence during the First Intermediate
Period. There is also evidence for military actions against Palestine.
The king reorganized the country and placed a vizier at the head of
civil administration for the country. Mentuhotep IV was the final
pharaoh of this dynasty, and despite being absent from various lists of
pharaohs, his reign is attested from a few inscriptions in Wadi
Hammamat that record expeditions to the Red Sea coast and to
quarry stone for the royal monuments. The leader of this expedition
was his vizier Amenemhat, who is widely assumed to be the future
pharaoh Amenemhet I, the first king of the 12th Dynasty. Amenemhet
is widely assumed by some Egyptologists to have either usurped the
throne or assumed power after Mentuhotep IV died childless.
Amenemhat I built a new capital for Egypt, known as Itjtawy, thought to be located near the present-day el-Lisht,
although the chronicler Manetho claims the capital remained at Thebes. Amenemhat forcibly pacified internal
unrest, curtailed the rights of the nomarchs, and is known to have at launched at least one campaign into Nubia.
His son Senusret I continued the policy of his father to recapture Nubia and other territories lost during the First
Intermediate Period. The Libyans were subdued under his forty-five year reign and Egypt's prosperity and security
were secured. Senusret III (1878 BC – 1839 BC) was a warrior-king, leading his troops deep into Nubia, and built
a series of massive forts throughout the country to establish Egypt's formal boundaries with the unconquered
areas of its territory. Amenemhat III (1860 BC – 1815 BC) is considered the last great pharaoh of the Middle
Kingdom. Egypt's population began to exceed food production levels during the reign of Amenemhat III, who then
ordered the exploitation of the Fayyum and increased mining operations in the Sinaï desert. He also invited Asiatic
settlers to Egypt to labour on Egypt's monuments. Late in his reign the annual floods along the Nile began to fail,
further straining the resources of the government. The Thirteenth Dynasty and Fourteenth Dynasty witnessed the
slow decline of Egypt into the Second Intermediate Period in which some of the Asiatic settlers of Amenemhat III
would grasp power over Egypt as the Hyksos.
Second Intermediate Period and the Hyksos
The Second Intermediate Period marks a period when Ancient Egypt once again fell into disarray between the end
of the Middle Kingdom, and the start of the New Kingdom. This period is best known as the time the Hyksos (an
Asiatic people) made their appearance in Egypt, the reigns of its kings comprising the Fifteenth and Sixteenth
Dynasties. The Thirteenth Dynasty proved unable to hold onto the long land of Egypt, and a provincial ruling
family located in the marshes of the western Delta at Xois broke away from the central authority to form the
Fourteenth Dynasty. The splintering of the land accelerated after the reign of the Thirteenth Dynasty king
Neferhotep I.
The Hyksos first appear during the reign of the Thirteenth Dynasty pharaoh Sobekhotep IV, and by 1720 BC took
control of the town of Avaris. The outlines of the traditional account of the "invasion" of the land by the Hyksos is
preserved in the Aegyptiaca of Manetho, who records that during this time the Hyksos overran Egypt, led by
Salitis, the founder of the Fifteenth Dynasty. In the last decades, however, the idea of a simple migration, with little
or no violence involved, has gained some support.[13] Under this theory, the Egyptian rulers of 13th Dynasty
were unable to stop these new migrants from travelling to Egypt from Asia because they were weak kings who
were struggling to cope with various domestic problems including possibly famine. The Hyksos princes and
chieftains ruled in the eastern Delta with their local Egyptian vassals. The Hyksos Fifteenth Dynasty rulers
established their capital and seat of government at Memphis and their summer residence at Avaris. The Hyksos
kingdom was cantered in the eastern Nile Delta and Middle Egypt and was limited in size, never extending south
into Upper Egypt, which was under control by Theban-based rulers. Hyksos relations with the south seem to have
been mainly of a commercial nature, although Theban princes appear to have recognized the Hyksos rulers and
may possibly have provided them with tribute for a period.
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Around the time Memphis fell to the Hyksos, the native Egyptian ruling house in Thebes declared its independence
from the vassal dynasty in Itj-tawy and set itself up as the Seventeenth Dynasty. This dynasty was to prove the
salvation of Egypt and would eventually lead the war of liberation that drove the Hyksos back into Asia. The two
last kings of this dynasty were Tao II the Brave and Kamose. Ahmose I completed the conquest and expulsion of
the Hyksos from the delta region, restored Theban rule over the whole of Egypt and successfully reasserted
Egyptian power in its formerly subject territories of Nubia and Canaan. His reign marks this beginning of the
Eighteenth Dynasty and the New Kingdom period.
New Kingdom
Possibly as a result of the foreign rule of the Hyksos during the Second Intermediate Period, the New Kingdom
saw Egypt attempt to create a buffer between the Levant and Egypt, and attain its greatest territorial extent. It
expanded far south into Nubia and held wide territories in the Near East. Egyptian armies fought Hittite armies
for control of modern-day Syria.
Eighteenth Dynasty
Golden mask from the mummy of Tutankhamen >>
This was a time of great wealth and power for Egypt. Some of the most
important and best-known Pharaohs ruled at this time. Hatshepsut was a
pharaoh at this time. Hatshepsut is unusual as she was a female pharaoh, a
rare occurrence in Egyptian history. She was an ambitious and competent
leader, extending Egyptian trade south into present-day Somalia and north
into the Mediterranean. She ruled for twenty years through a combination
of widespread propaganda and deft political skill. Her co-regent and
successor Thutmose III ("the Napoleon of Egypt") expanded Egypt's army
and wielded it with great success. Late in his reign he ordered her name
hacked out from her monuments. He fought against Asiatic people and
was the most successful of Egyptian pharaohs. Amenhotep III built
extensively at the temple of Karnak including the Luxor temple which
consisted of two pylons, a colonnade behind the new temple entrance,
and a new temple to the goddess Ma'at.
Nineteenth
Dynasty
<< Egypt and its world in 1300 BC.
Ramesses I reigned for two years and was succeeded by
his son Seti I. Seti I carried on the work of Horemheb in
restoring power, control, and respect to Egypt. He also
was responsible for creating the temple complex at
Abydos. Arguably Ancient Egypt's power as a nation-state
peaked during the reign of Ramesses II ("the Great") of
the 19th Dynasty. He reigned for 67 years from the age of
18 and carried on his immediate predecessor's work and
created many more splendid temples, such as that of Abu
Simbel on the Nubian border. He sought to recover
territories in the Levant that had been held by 18th
Dynasty Egypt. His campaigns of reconquest culminated in
the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC, where he led Egyptian
armies against those of the Hittite king Muwatalli II and
was caught in history's first recorded military ambush.
Ramesses II was famed for the huge number of children he
sired by his various wives and concubines; the tomb he
built for his sons (many of whom he outlived) in the Valley
of the Kings has proven to be the largest funerary
complex in Egypt. His immediate successors continued the
military campaigns, though an increasingly troubled court
complicated matters. Ramesses II was succeeded by his
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son Merneptah and then by Merenptah's son Seti II. Seti II's throne seems to have been disputed by his halfbrother Amenmesse, who may have temporarily ruled from Thebes. Upon his death, Seti II son Siptah, who may
have been afflicted with polio during his life, was appointed to the throne by Chancellor Bay, an Asiatic commoner
who served as vizier behind the scenes. At Siptah's early death, the throne was assumed by Twosret, the dowager
queen of Seti II (and possibly Amenmesses's sister). A period of anarchy at the end of Twosret's short reign saw a
native reaction to foreign control leading to the execution of the
chancellor, and placing Setnakhte on the throne, establishing the
Twentieth Dynasty.
Rameses II at Abu Simbel >>
Twentieth Dynasty
The last "great" pharaoh from the New Kingdom is widely regarded
to be Ramesses III, the son of Setnakhte who reigned three decades
after the time of Ramesses II. In Year 8 of his reign, the Sea People,
invaded Egypt by land and sea. Ramesses III defeated them in two
great land and sea battles. He claimed that he incorporated them as
subject people and settled them in Southern Canaan, although there
is evidence that they forced their way into Canaan. Their presence in
Canaan may have contributed to the formation of new states in this
region such as Philistia after the collapse of the Egyptian Empire. He
was also compelled to fight invading Libyan tribesmen in two major
campaigns in Egypt's Western Delta in his Year 6 and Year 11
respectively. The heavy cost of these battles slowly exhausted Egypt's
treasury and contributed to the gradual decline of the Egyptian
Empire in Asia. The severity of these difficulties is stressed by the fact
that the first known labour strike in recorded history occurred during Year 29 of Ramesses III's reign, when the
food rations for the Egypt's favoured and elite royal tomb-builders and artisans in the village of Deir el Medina
could not be provisioned. Something in the air prevented much sunlight from reaching the ground and also
arrested global tree growth for almost two full decades until 1140 BC. One proposed cause is the Hekla 3
eruption of the Hekla volcano in Iceland, but the dating of that event remains in dispute.
Following Ramesses III's death there was endless bickering between his heirs. Three of his sons would go on to
assume power as Ramesses IV, Ramesses VI and Ramesses VIII respectively. However, at this time Egypt was also
increasingly beset by a series of droughts, below-normal flooding levels of the Nile, famine, civil unrest and official
corruption. The power of the last pharaoh, Ramesses XI, grew so weak that in the south the High Priests of Amun
at Thebes became the effective defacto rulers of Upper Egypt, while Smendes controlled Lower Egypt even before
Ramesses XI's death. Smendes would eventually found the Twenty-First dynasty at Tanis.
Third Intermediate Period
After the death of Ramesses XI, his successor Smendes ruled from the city of Tanis in the north, while the High
Priests of Amun at Thebes had effective rule of the south of the country, whilst still nominally recognizing
Smendes as king.[18] In fact, this division was less significant than it seems, since both priests and pharaohs came
from the same family. Piankh, assumed control of Upper Egypt, ruling from Thebes, with the northern limit of his
control ending at Al-Hibah. (The High Priest Herihor had died before Ramesses XI, but also was an all-butindependent ruler in the latter days of the king's reign.) The country was once again split into two parts with the
priests in Thebes and the Pharaohs at Tanis. Their reign seems to be without any other distinction, and they were
replaced without any apparent struggle by the Libyan kings of the Twenty-Second Dynasty. Egypt has long had ties
with Libya, and the first king of the new dynasty, Shoshenq I, was a Meshwesh Libyan, who served as the
commander of the armies under the last ruler of the Twenty-First Dynasty, Psusennes II. He unified the country,
putting control of the Amun clergy under his own son as the High Priest of Amun, a post that was previously a
hereditary appointment. The scant and patchy nature of the written records from this period suggest that it was
unsettled. There appear to have been many subversive groups, which eventually led to the creation of the TwentyThird Dynasty, which ran concurrent with the latter part of the Twenty-Second Dynasty. After the withdrawal of
Egypt from Nubia at the end of the New Kingdom, a native dynasty took control of Nubia. Under king Piye, the
Nubian founder of Twenty-Fifth Dynasty, the Nubians pushed north in an effort to crush his Libyan opponents
ruling in the Delta. He managed to attain power as far as Memphis. His opponent Tefnakhte ultimately submitted
to him, but he was allowed to remain in power in Lower Egypt and founded the short-lived Twenty-Fourth
Dynasty at Sais.
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The country was reunited by the Twenty-Second Dynasty founded by Shoshenq I in 945 BC (or 943 BC), who
descended from Meshwesh immigrants, originally from Ancient Libya. This brought stability to the country for well
over a century. After the reign of Osorkon II the country had again splintered into two states with Shoshenq III of
the Twenty-Second Dynasty controlling Lower Egypt by 818 BC while Takelot II and his son (the future Osorkon
III) ruled Middle and Upper Egypt. The Nubian kingdom to the south took full advantage of this division and
political instability. Piye waged a campaign from Nubia and defeated the combined might of several native-Egyptian
rulers such as Peftjaubast, Osorkon IV of Tanis, and Tefnakht of Sais. Piye established the Nubian Twenty-Fifth
Dynasty and appointed the defeated rulers to be his provincial governors. He was succeeded first by his brother,
Shabaka, and then by his two sons Shebitku and Taharqa.
The international prestige of Egypt declined considerably by this time. The country's international allies had fallen
under the sphere of influence of Assyria and from about 700 BC the question became when, not if, there would
be war between the two states. Taharqa's reign and that of his successor, Tanutamun, were filled with constant
conflict with the Assyrians against whom there were numerous victories, but ultimately Thebes was occupied and
Memphis sacked.
Late Period
From 671 BC on, Memphis and the Delta region became the target of many attacks from the Assyrians, who
expelled the Nubians and handed over power to client kings of the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty. Psamtik I was the first
to be recognized as the king of the whole of Egypt, and he brought increased stability to the country during a 54year reign from the new capital of Sais. Four successive Saite kings continued guiding Egypt successfully and
peacefully from 610-526 BC, keeping the Babylonians away with the help of Greek mercenaries. By the end of this
period a new power was growing in the Near East: Persia. The pharaoh Psamtik III had to face the might of Persia
at Pelusium; he was defeated and briefly escaped to Memphis, but ultimately was captured and then executed.
Persian domination
Achaemenid Egypt can be divided into three eras: the first period of Persian occupation when Egypt became a
satrapy, followed by an interval of independence, and the second and final period of occupation. The Persian king
Cambyses assumed the formal title of Pharaoh, called himself Mesuti-Re ("Re has given birth"), and sacrificed to
the Egyptian gods. He founded the Twenty-seventh dynasty. Egypt was then joined with Cyprus and Phoenicia in
the sixth satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire. Cambyses' successors Darius I the Great and Xerxes pursued a
similar policy, visited the country, and warded off an Athenian attack. It is likely that Artaxerxes I and Darius II
visited the country as well, although it is not attested in our sources, and did not prevent the Egyptians from
feeling unhappy. During the war of succession after the reign of Darius II, which broke out in 404, they revolted
under Amyrtaeus and regained their independence. This sole ruler of the Twenty-eighth dynasty died in 399, and
power went to the Twenty-ninth dynasty. The Thirtieth Dynasty was established in 380 BC and lasted until 343
BC. Nectanebo II was the last native king to rule Egypt. Artaxerxes III (358–338 BC) reconquered the Nile valley
for a brief period (343–332 BC). In 332 BC Mazaces handed over the country to Alexander the Great without a
fight. The Achaemenid Empire had ended, and for a while Egypt was a satrapy in Alexander's empire. Later the
Ptolemies and then the Romans successively ruled the Nile valley.
Ptolemaic dynasty
In 332 BC Alexander III of Macedon conquered Egypt with little resistance from the Persians. He was welcomed
by the Egyptians as a deliverer. He visited Memphis, and went on a pilgrimage to the oracle of Amun at the Oasis
of Siwa. The oracle declared him to be the son of Amun. He conciliated the Egyptians by the respect which he
showed for their religion, but he appointed Greeks to virtually all the senior posts in the country, and founded a
new Greek city, Alexandria, to be the new capital. The wealth of Egypt could now be harnessed for Alexander's
conquest of the rest of the Persian Empire. Early in 331 BC he was ready to depart, and led his forces away to
Phoenicia. He left Cleomenes as the ruling nomarch to control Egypt in his absence. Alexander never returned to
Egypt. Following Alexander's death in Babylon in 323 BC, a succession crisis erupted among his generals. Initially,
Perdiccas ruled the empire as regent for Alexander's half-brother Arrhidaeus, who became Philip III of Macedon,
and then as regent for both Philip III and Alexander's infant son Alexander IV of Macedon, who had not been born
at the time of his father's death. Perdiccas appointed Ptolemy, one of Alexander's closest companions, to be satrap
of Egypt. Ptolemy ruled Egypt from 323 BC, nominally in the name of the joint kings Philip III and Alexander IV.
However, as Alexander the Great's empire disintegrated, Ptolemy soon established himself as ruler in his own
right. Ptolemy successfully defended Egypt against an invasion by Perdiccas in 321 BC, and consolidated his
position in Egypt and the surrounding areas during the Wars of the Diadochi (322 BC-301 BC). In 305 BC,
Ptolemy took the title of King. As Ptolemy I Soter ("Saviour"), he founded the Ptolemaic dynasty that was to rule
Egypt for nearly 300 years.
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The later Ptolemies took on Egyptian traditions by marrying their siblings, had themselves portrayed on public
monuments in Egyptian style and dress, and participated in Egyptian religious life. Hellenistic culture thrived in
Egypt well after the Muslim conquest. The Ptolemies had to fight native rebellions and were involved in foreign
and civil wars that led to the decline of the kingdom and its annexation by Rome.
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