Download INTRODUCTION Genecist Luca Cavalli

INTRODUCTION
Genecist Luca Cavalli-Sforza has argued that neither race nor ethnicity have a genetic basis
and cannot be scientifically defined. He notes that human populations have a great degree of
genetic unity (even in their apparent diversity): Most genetic differences are between
individuals, not groups. Almost never does one group (racial or ethnic) have a trait that is
missing in the rest of humanity. Our physical differences like skin colour, facial features, hair
texture actually represent ancestral adaptations to different environments. These are
malleable characteristics that evolve relatively swiftly. The obvious difference in skin colour,
for instance, relate to the intensity of sunlight at different latitudes.
Ethnicity is the term used to refer to the culture of people in a given geographic region,
including their language, heritage, religion and customs. Ethnicity according to Nnoli is
a social phenomenon associated with interactions among members of different
groups. Ethnicity is often used synonymously with ambiguous terms such as a nation or
race. The concept of ethnicity has never ceased elicit scholarly interest and inquiry. This is
probably connected with its pervasiveness as a denomination of social life and interaction
especially in developing countries and more so, because contrary to theoretical postulations,
the world has continued to gravitate towards ethnic-based and micro group identities. Nnoli
further explains ethnicity to be a social phenomenon associated with interactions among
members of different groups. Ethnic group are social formations distinguished by the
communal characters of their boundaries. The relevant communal factor may be language,
culture or both.
Race on the other hand is a group of people with a common physical feature or features. The
term race refers to the concept of dividing people into populations or groups on the basis of
various sets of physical characteristics. Race presumes shared biological or genetic traits,
whether actual or asserted. In 19th century, racial differences were ascribed significance in
areas of intelligence, health and personality races are assumed to be distinguished by skin
colour, facial type and so much more. Race refers to a person’s physical characteristics such
as bone structure and skin, hair or eye colour. A race is a group that is treated distinct in
society based on certain characteristics. Because of their biological or cultural characteristics,
which are labelled as inferior by superior or powerful groups in society, a race is often
singled out for differential or unfair treatment.
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SYNTHESIS OF RACE AND ETHNICITY
As should now be obvious, the term “race” is so charged and misconceived that it is very
difficult to employ in a useful analytic manner. To add to the confusion, as noted previously,
many groups today defined as ethnic groups were in previous historical periods defined as
races. Due to the confusing usage of race and its questionable scientific validity, many
sociologists and anthropologists have dispensed entirely with the term race and instead prefer
‘ethnic group’ to define those groups commonly referred to as racial. In the United States,
African Americans, African Indians, Chinese Americans and Mexican Americans have all
earmarks of ethnic group- unique culture, consciousness of kind, inscriptive membership in
some cases even territoriality- at the same time, most members of these groups are physically
distinct from Americans of European origin. Classifying all these groups as ethnic seems
most reasonable because, in addition to their physical traits, consistent and significant cultural
traits set them off from other groups. Ethnic group in most modern societies comprise
combinations of these national, cultural, religious and physical traits.
Ethnicity refers to a category of people who identify with each other based on common
language, ancestral history, socio-cultural or national experiences; it is primarily an inherited
status. The distinction between race and ethnicity is considered equally problematic, ethnicity
is often assumed to be the cultural identification of a group, often based on language and
tradition while race is assumed to be a biological classification based on DNA and or bone
structure. Race is a more controversial subject than ethnicity due to its common political use.
It is assumed that based on power relations, there exist ‘racialized ethnicities’ and ‘ethnicized
races’.
The distinction between race and ethnicity is considered highly problematic. Race is a more
controversial subject than ethnicity, due to its common political use. It is assumed that, based
on power relations, there exists ‘racialized ethnicities’ and ‘ethnicized races’. Ramon
Grosfoguel (University of California, Berkeley) argues that racial/ethnic identity is one
concept and that concepts of race and ethnicity cannot be used as separate and autonomous
categories.
Before Weber, race and ethnicity were often seen as two aspects of the same thing. Around
1900 and before, the essentialist primordial’s understanding of ethnicity was predominant:
cultural differences between peoples were seen as being the result of inherited traits and
tendencies. This was the time when ‘sciences’ such as phrenology claimed to be able to
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correlate cultural and behavioural traits of different populations with their outward physical
characteristics, such as the shape of the skull. With Weber’s introduction of ethnicity as a
social construct, race and ethnicity was divided from each other. A social believe in
biologically well defined races lingered on.
Societies comprising numerous racial, religious, and cultural groups can be described as
multiethnic. In the contemporary world, multiethnic societies are commonplace, not
exceptional. Only a handful of the more than 180 member countries of the United Nations are
ethnically homogeneous. “Multiethnicity,” notes the sociologist Robin Williams, “is the rule”
(1994:50). Moreover, the extent of diversity within many of these societies is very great.
The largest ethnic groups in modern times comprise hundreds of millions of individuals (Han
Chinese being the largest), while the smallest are limited to a few dozen individuals
(numerous indigenous peoples worldwide). Larger ethnic groups may be subdivided into
smaller sub-groups known variously as tribes or clans, which over time may become separate
ethnic groups themselves due to endogamy and or physical isolation from the parent group.
Conversely, formerly separate ethnicities can merge to form a pan-ethnicity, and may
eventually merge into one single ethnicity. Whether through division or amalgamation, the
formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethno genesis.
Sociologist Richard Alba has offered a definition of race as a variant of ethnicity: “A racial
group is . . . an ethnic group whose members are believed, by others if not also by
themselves, to be physiologically distinctive” (1992:576). Thus, ethnic groups can include
groups identified by national origin, cultural distinctiveness, religious affiliation, or racial
characteristics. As we will see, ethnic groups in most modern societies comprise
combinations of these national, cultural, religious, and physical traits. For those groups that
are particularly divergent physically from the dominant group, such as African Americans,
Richard Burkey (1978) has suggested the term racial-ethnic group, and that term will be used
accordingly.
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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RACE AND ETHNICITY
Ethnicity is not just a person’s race. We can say that a Caucasian is white, but it doesn’t
describe his ethnicity. Ethnicity is about tradition, learned behaviour and customs. It is about
learning where you come from, and celebrating the traditions and ideas that are part of that
region. At one time it was easy to tell one’s ethnicity, but as the global conglomeration
offered more choice and change (as well as borrowing styles and ideas from other cultures), it
has become impossible to identify ethnicity based solely on distinctive features. Ethnicity
gives us room to change because we can reject our own and embrace another. You can move
from region one region to another and assimilate your beliefs, actions and customs to identify
with that ethnic orientation. You cannot do the same with race.
Race is your biologically engineered features. It can include skin colour, skin tone, eye and
hair colour, as well as tendency toward developing certain diseases. It is not something that
can be changed or disguised. Race does not have customs or globally learned behaviour. Race
can be used to describe other elements of biological and regional differences. For instance,
you can be born Jewish (which is usually referred to as religion), but it does not mean that
you have embraced the Jewish customs or religious beliefs. In such cases, the same term can
be used to describe either ethnicity or race.
Ethnicity does not always describe colour either. One can claim to be African, which
indicates an entire multi-regional, multi-cultural continent. There can be wide range of skin
colours and tones throughout Africa, ranging from the white skin and fair haired faces many
associate with the Aryan race to the skin, black haired faces that many associate with African
regions. Other differences are;
1. MULTI-RACIAL AND MULTICULTURAL
In most cases, race is unitary; a person belongs to one race, but may claim ethnic
membership in multiple groups. For example, Barack Obama is racially black in spite
of his mother being Caucasian. On the other hand, a person can be self identified as
Scottish and German if she has indeed lived in both ethnic groups.
2. SELF IDENTIFICATION AND CHOICE
Another difference between race and ethnicity is related to the ability to self-identify.
A person who not choose their race, it is assigned by society based upon her physical
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features. However, ethnicity is self identified. An individual can learn a language,
social norms and customs, and assimilate into a culture to belong to an ethnic group.
3. RACE RELATIONS
Race relations are one of the dominant themes in American politics from time to time,
and refer to relationships between the major groups-white, Black, Native American,
Hispanic/Latino, Asian and others of mixed races. America has also had a sometimes
troubled history with ethnic strife- example, during the waves of Irish and Italian
immigration to the U.S. These immigrants were Caucasian but had a different
ethnicity compared to the Anglo Saxons who preceded them; they often faced ethnic
discrimination.
4. ASIAN
The word ‘Asian’ is used in a racial context in the United States refers to people of
Southeast Asian origin, including a vast variety of ethnic backgrounds, such as
Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese. This colloquial usage is incorrect because
‘Asian’ is not technically a race, as it means someone from Asia, including people
from India, Saudi Arabia, Israel and parts of Russia.
COMPARISON OF RACE AND ETHNICITY
The traditional definition of both race and ethnicity is related to biological and sociological
factors respectively. Race refers to a person’s physical characteristics, such as bone structure
and skin, hair, or eye colour. Ethnicity however refers to cultural factors including
nationality, regional culture, ancestry, and language. Though both terms seem completely
different, it is still possible for them to be synthesized.
DEFINITION
It may seem like buy terms are completely different, but surprisingly, they share
common similarities in their definition. Ethnicity is a population group whose
members identify with each other on the basis of common nationality or shared
cultural traditions. The term race refers to the concept of dividing people into
populations or groups on the basis of various sets of physical characteristics
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SIGNIFICANCE
Race presumes shared biological or genetic traits, whether actual or asserted. In the
early 19th century, racial differences were ascribed significance in areas of
intelligence, health and personality. Ethnicity also connotes shared cultural traits and
a shared group history. Some ethnic groups also share linguistic or religious traits,
while others share a common history but not a common language or religion.
NATIONALISM
In the 19th century, there was development of political ideology of ethnic nationalismcreating nations based on presumed shared ethnic origins. Also, in the 19th century,
the concept of nationalism was often used to justify the domination of one race over
another within a specific nation.
LEGAL SYSTEM
In the last decades of the 20th century, the legal system as well as the official ideology
emphasized racial equality. Also, in the last decades of the 20th century, in most
nations, the legal system as well as the official ideology prohibited ethnic-based
discrimination.
CONFLICTS
Often brutal conflicts between ethnic groups have existed throughout history and
across the world. But most ethnic groups in fact get along peacefully within one
another in most nations most of the time. Racial prejudice remains a continuing
problem throughout the world. However, there are fewer racial based conflicts in the
21st century than in the past.
GENEALOGY
Racial categories result from a shared genealogy due to geographical isolation. In the
modern world, this isolation has been broken down and racial groups have mixed.
Ethnicity is defined in terms of shared genealogy, whether actual or presumed.
Typically, if people believe they descend from a particular group, and they want to be
associated with that group, then they are in fact members of that group
DISTINGUISHING FACTORS
Ethnic groups distinguish themselves differently from one time period to another.
They typically seek to define themselves but also are defined by the stereotypes of
dominant groups. Races are assumed to be distinguished by face colour, facial types,
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etc. However, the scientific basis of racial distinctions is very weak. Scientific studies
show that racial genetic differences are weak except in skin colour.
CONCLUSION
Without question, race and ethnicity are one of the most misunderstood, misused, and often
dangerous concepts of the modern world. They are not applied dispassionately by laypeople
or even, to a great extent, by social scientists. Race arouses emotions such as hate, fear,
anger, loyalty, pride, and prejudice. It has also been used to justify some of the most
appalling injustices and mistreatments of humans by other humans. The idea of race has a
long history, extending as far back as ancient civilizations. It is in the modern world,
however—specifically, the last two centuries— that the notion has taken on real significance
and fundamentally affected human relations. Unfortunately, the term has never been applied
consistently and has meant different things to different people.
Conclusively, ethnic groups are groups within a larger society that display a unique set of
cultural traits. The sociologist Melvin Tumin more specifically describes an ethnic group as
“a social group which, within a larger cultural and social system, claims or is accorded
special status in terms of a complex of traits (ethnic traits) which it exhibits or is believed to
exhibit” (1964:243). Ethnic groups, then, are subcultures, maintaining certain behavioural
characteristics that, in some degree, set them off from society’s mainstream, or modal,
culture.
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REFERENCES
1990. “Land, Labour and Group Formation:Blacks and Indians in the UnitedStates.” Ethnic
and Racial Studies 13:368–388.
Atere,A.A and Olagbemi, A.A (1998) Dictionary of sociology and social studies, Bolaji and
Association, Ibadan.
Etzioni, Amitai. 1998. “Some Diversity.” Society (July/August):59–61.
Ezorsky, Gertrude. 1991. Racism and Justice: TheCase for Affirmative Action. Ithaca, N.Y.:
Cornell University Press.
Giddens,A (1991). Introduction to sociology, New York: W.W. Norton & Company
Nnoli(1989) Ethnic conflict in Africa.CODESRIA, Dakar.
Sanda, O.A (1976). Ethnic Relations in Nigeria. The caxon press, Ibadan.
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