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Chapter 6 The World in the 18th Century Intro • • • Western Europe continued exploring the world and expanding Western influence, power and wealth Most of the world’s cultures were drawn into global trading relationships West’s unceasing search for riches, decimated indigenous cultures, created enduring dependence on the West, and enslaved millions The West and the World • Seems all present-day developing nations lived through a similar historical experience: • • they all had to endure the expansion of Europe as it embraced capitalism Two main theories attempt to explain developing nations today: • • modernization theory dependency theory Modernization Theory • Suggests that all societies were originally traditional • societies in which work is regulated subsistence and existence • • experienced little change, little progress and little innovation (stagnant) Scientific discovery lead to important technological change in Europe Modernization Theory (2) • The advent of capitalism also fuelled change • • Uses the idea that wealth can be used to create more wealth Modernization theorists claim that developing countries today failed to move from traditional societies to modern societies • Did not focus on science, technology, innovation, capitalism or democracy Modernization Theory (3) • Rostow’s Stages of Economic Growth • • • • • Stage 1: The traditional society Stage 2: Something happens to stir up the traditional society Stage 3: Country’s political leaders make progress, science and technology priorities Stage 4: Economic growth begins and spreads to various sectors of society Stage 5: Masses (lower class) finally benefit from the economic growth through increased standards of living Dependency Theory • • • Opposite to modernization theory Reason some countries are developing nations today is because European nations deliberately created poverty and dependency in these areas None of these countries has remained traditional Dependency Theory (2) • • Developing world is where it is today as a result of its deliberate underdevelopment by European powers Dependency theorists point out that these cultures were far from traditional if they were receiving such praise for improvements in agriculture and manufactures Major Arenas of European th Conflict in the 18 Century • By 1800 it was evident that Spain and Portugal had failed to take full control of the world they had pioneered • America was mostly Catholic with Spanish and Portuguese languages present • • did not have much influence in the realm of economics Dutch had also slowed down their activities in Africa, Indonesia, and Malaysia after 1700 leaving them open to European exploitation Arenas (2) • • Britain as a global empire experiences a period of global authority that would not end until well after WWI 1715-1815 saw the emergence of a cluster of great powers that would dominate 19th c Europe Arenas (3) • • • • Russia became a major power in Eastern Europe German-speaking Prussia grew in importance in Central Europe Britain and France fought a global duel for control of the seas-which Britain won Although overextended, Austria remained influential in Central European politics Arenas (4) • • • Monarchies of Spain, Portugal and the Italian states carried little weight Dutch, Danes, Swedes were now also secondary powers Great powers were closely matched in resources and strength • • Not able to ignore the lesser states Made frequent overtures for collaboration French Hegemony Thwarted • Louis XIV wanted to extend his authority in Europe • • An alliance among Britain, the Netherlands and others formed against France French and Spanish fleets were outclassed by Anglo-Dutch at sea Hegemony (2) • Peace of Utrecht signed in 1713 • King of Spain, Philip V kept his throne and the Spanish empire, but ceded Gibraltar and Menorca to Britain • He renounced any claim to the French throne Hegemony (3) • Treaty had implications beyond Europe • • Louis XIV of France returned Hudson Bay , Acadian, Newfoundland & Saint Kitts to Britain British received an annual contract, the Asiento, to provide the Spanish Empire with slaves, an agreement later extended to the Austrian emperor Austria • Austria had gained from Turks most of Hungary as well as northern Serbia By early 18th c, 3 powers dominated: • • • Great Britain had become the dominant naval power, Austria had become a formidable land force France had acquired considerable strength both on land and at sea Austria (2) • British navy was being challenged by the French, who were trying to rebuild their war fleet • • By 1739 France had 50 major warships and Britain had 80 Conflict between Britain and France loomed overseas in their trading and colonial interests War of Austrian Succession • Maria Theresa became the new Austrian Empress in 1740 • • • Frederick the Great (Prussia) reacted by invading Austrian province of Silesia Austrians were never able to force Frederick to give up his conquest Ensuring war, which pitted the AngloAustrian troops against Franco-Bavarian and Prussian troops, is known as the War of Austrian Succession Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle • 1748 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle ended war, but settled little • • • • British exchanged Madras, India to get the Louisbourg fortress from the French The Netherlands were ceded to Austria Silesia ceded to Prussia Ongoing hostility erupted into open war in 1756 (7 Years War) Seven Years’ War • In early 1756, Britain and Prussia signed an agreement not to attack each other • • • France and Austria signed a defensive alliance In June, France seized Menorca from the British In August, Prussian invading Saxony • However, it united the Austrians and Russians against him Seven Year’s War (2) • • Prussian state survived undefeated Europe’s major powers were pitted against each • • War would have worldwide repercussions, especially for North America Seven Year’s War was caused by: • • Britain’s efforts to strengthen naval supremacy Russia’s expansion in Eastern Europe Seven Year’s War (3) Conflicts between France and England were fought outside the Continent North • America, Africa, Caribbean, India In India, Robert Clive and his forces prevailed over the French in 1757 • • Resulted in buildup of British influence on the Indian subcontinent In Canada, British captured Louisbourg, Quebec City, and Montreal Seven Year’s War (4) • In September 1759 two major battles • • Lagos (Portugal) and Quiberon Bay (France) Decimated the French fleet and established the supremacy of British fleet • • • Removal of the French from the Atlantic cut off the supply line of French troops to new France French also lost coastal trading posts in West Africa After loss, British seized Guadeloupe, Martinique, and other West Indian islands Treaty of Paris • • Peace agreement reached in 1763 France showed little interest in reclaiming new France • • Choose to keep islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, secure return of Guadeloupe In India, France retained only a few coastal trading posts The treaty marked the beginning of an extensive period of British dominance outside Europe Human Servitude • • By the beginning of the 18th century, slaves had become the primary export from Africa Millions of Africans were enslaved for the benefit of manufacturing and commercial interests in Europe and America Africans Shipped to Slavery • Between 1701 and 1810 • • two million slaves were exported from Africa by England alone France and Portugal exported approximately 600,000 slaves each Africans (2) • Estimated that as many as 14 million Africans were shipped to slavery • • • • About 1% of slaves went to Europe About 7% went to US and Canada About 42% to Caribbean About 50% went to Latin America Slaves (3) • By the time slavery was abolished • • Much of the world had been forever altered Heavy depopulation, particularly of young males, weakened African communities Becoming a Slave • • Slavery existed in African society before European contact and trade 3 ways a person could become a slave: • • Pawnship, Judicial decision, Capture Slaves in Africa better off: • • could still be functioning members of owner’s family Received better treatment than being bought and sold by European slave traders Profit from Slave Trade • • • Profits from slave trade could be enormous - might make 300% profit Costs for European slave traders included fees and taxes, financial losses due to losses of ships and crew at sea, hiring people in Africa to load slaves onto ships Estimated average was 24%; later reduced to 8-13% Colony at Cape of Good Hope • Cape of Good Hope did get colonized by Europeans • • • Dutch first landed there in 1652 Dutch settled into colonial life at he Cape and began importing slaves by the middle of the 17th century By 1711, the were 1771 private owned slaves; by 1793 there were 14747 Cape of Good Hope (2) • Cape has been called one of the most rigid and oppressive slave societies that existed • • • Slaves had very little family life due to low ratio of women to men Dutch relied heavily on coercion as a means of control Strong racial divisions between Indonesian and African slaves – worst jobs went to slaves from Mozambique Abolition of Slavery • • • Not all people were completely indifferent to the cruelty, exploitation, and death that came with the slave trade Slaves often flogged and other physical punishments to keep slaves from rebelling or running away With the Enlightenment came calls for an end to slavery and the slave trade Barriers to Human Rights • As slave trade grew, churches offered support for the practice of slavery • • • Some justified slavery under God and the bible Many believed that Blacks were stronger and more resistant to the climatic and working conditions of plantations Others argued that if the slave trade were to be legally terminated, it would continue illegally because it was so profitable Agents of Human Rights: Abolitionists • • Abolitionist movement gained momentum Major abolitionist was GuillaumeThomas-Francois Raynal (1713-1796) • • • Negative overview of the European world system European settlers who lived in the colonies were vicious Believed discovery of the East and West Indies had been a catastrophe of much of humanity Abolition (2) • • • • Slavery was abolished in Upper Canada as of 1834 (not illegal but frowned upon) Slavery was abolished in France on September 27, 1791 Abolished in Mexico in 1829 Persisted in the southern United States • Major cause of the American Civil War • War raged from 1861 to 1866 before slavery was abolished Islam and the West • • Islam founded by the Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century Islam expanded greatly • • by 1500 much of North Africa and the Middle East was Muslim territory In 1453, the city of Constantinople (Istanbul) fell to Sultan Mohammed II, and marked the new western border of the Empire of the Ottoman Turks Islam (2) • Constantinople had been a Christian stronghold for the previous 1000 years • • Fall to Islam was a severe shock to the Christian world Key consequence was the loss of access to the Black Sea, depriving Europe of a land route to India Islam (3) • • Ottoman Empire was dominant power of from the 16th to 19th century By the 16th century, the West was aware of three major Muslim Empires • • • The Ottoman Empire The Safavid Empire – which had replaced Zoroastrianism in Persia (Iran) The Moghul Empire – which had taken over Hindu India Islam (4) • • Muslims tended to have superior military Ottomans also had more efficient bureaucracy than the West • • In Islamic tradition, new appointments were given on the grounds of ability, not birth Fatal flaw of Ottoman Empire was its excessive exploitation of its peasantry Islam (5) • Ottoman decline was also due to its failure to develop artillery and ships that carried naval gunnery • • Strength lay in ground armies By 1800, Europeans were calling the Ottoman Empire “the Sick Man of Europe” India and the West • • Indian subcontinent also affected by contact with Europeans India became unified under Moghul (Mongol) rule India (2) • 18th c Mogul dynasty in decline • • • • • • • Infighting between sons of emperor after his death Challenges to Mogul rule by Sikhs Increased power of the Marathas (local Hindu powers) Attacks by Persians Inter-regional religious wars Court incompetence General greed of Moguls India (3) • Government structure around semiindependent Moghul provincial governors called navabs • Navabs controlled local landowners called zamindars • • Seemed to be in constant conflict Zamindars were supposed to pay revenue to their navid, but often expanded their own territory without paying the required tribute India (4) • Declining power of the Moghuls benefitted British • • 1690 est. British settlement in Calcutta To 1750s, Britain exerted influence through trade and alliances • • British in direct control of import and export trade, price-setting, and the ability to force exclusive contracts with local craftspeople Also had access to considerable treasury of Bengal India (5) • By 1765, the East India Company had official control of civil administration and therefore control over the tax system • • Increased taxes - often lead to bankruptcy for Bengali farmers Company’s control expanded to other parts of India through warfare and intervention • Sometimes direct rule over areas it conquered, sometimes it installed and supported puppet rulers India (6) • • After 1765, British East India Company changed to official arm of British gov’t Indians ended up paying for the costs of British initiated warfare • Agriculture shifted to production to more profitable goods for export • • Goods included cotton, opium, and salt British established monopoly over sale of salt Art of the Non-Western World • Influence of Moghuls very evident in art • The Rajasthani style emphasized romantic scenes between princely heroes and beautiful and alluring heroines • • Often popular Hindu gods and goddesses Shows a focus on concepts rather than realistic depictions, and an appeal to emotions through brilliant colours on large areas The Pacific Northwest and the West • Europeans explored and mapped the Pacific Northwest • • • Russian searched shores of Pacific and Arctic Oceans for furs English (George Vancouver) explored the west coast of Canada 1791 – 1795 Spanish sailed north from California Pacific Northwest (2) • • Russian, British, and Spanish naval activity led to a more accurate knowledge of the contours of Pacific North America By 1800, the configurations of five continents were known China and the West • • • China had huge effect on Europe 18thc. Jesuit missionaries provided the first favourable description of the China Italian Jesuits were allowed into Beijing at the start of the 17th c • Gained acceptance since they helped with calendar reform, improvements in artillery, and advice on negotiations with Russia • Would lead to the Sino-Russian treaty of 1689 China (2) • Christianity was officially tolerated until 1734 - Chinese Emperor forbade teaching of European religions • • Jesuits stayed in China until the dissolution of their order in 1773 Europeans were impressed by the fact that there was no hereditary nobility in China China (3) • Francois Quesnay (1694-1774) “Chinese Despotism” - maintained that despotism is the domination of natural law • • he believed had led the Chinese to be more dependent on agriculture than any other nation Despotism: a system of government in which the ruler has unlimited power China (4) • • • Tithe on crops was the principal tax base Chinese Emperor performed solemn rites to mark the phases of the agricultural year Europeans marvelled at Chinese script • Some Europeans learned some spoken Chinese for use in trading but without any knowledge of script or grammar Global Economic Relations with China • • • British expansion in India was tied to expansion in China Argued that British needed the wealth and goods of India to gain access to China Chinese considered Europeans “red haired barbarians” and refused to trade with them Economics (2) • Trade eventually opened to Europeans • • Main beneficiary -British East Indian Company English bought silk, porcelain, and medicine from the Chinese and tried to sell them a number of things in return • • Woollens – no Chinese interest Lead, tin and rattan, pepper and rice – not interested Economics (3) • Chinese wanted silver • • Demand for silver soon created a huge drain on British resources Tea had been introduced in England in 1664 • • By 1783 six million pounds of tea imported By 1785, 15 million pounds • Tea had to be paid for with silver • • Chinese would not accept anything else British relied heavily on silver from the Americas Economics (4) • British started growing opium in India and sold it to the Chinese • • Addiction to opium soon became a serious social problem in China By end of 19th century, one in ten Chinese people were addicted to opium Chinese Painting • Interest in China went as far as influencing interior decoration in Europe • Chinoiserie – European style of objects and décor that imitated China Trade in “China” • When Vasco da Gama reached the Orient by rounding the Cape of Good Hope in 1498, he change the way of trade between China and Europe • • No longer had to rely on overland traders Brought a wide array of items to the European marketplace : silk, spices, tea and porcelain “China” • • • Chinese began making porcelain for export By 17th century large quantities of porcelain were being imported to Europe Porcelain as a decorative accessory reached its peak in the late 17th and early 18th centuries “China” • British and other Europeans slowly took over production of porcelain • • Key players were Delft, Wedgewood and Royal Doulton Europeans and North Americans still call any fine porcelain “china” Mutiny on H.M.S. Bounty • One of most famous stories of eighteenth century Europeans in the South seas • • • Concerns the voyage of a British trading vessel, the HMS Bounty Set sail from England in December 1787 with orders to reach the island of Tahiti and there collect young breadfruit plants Plants were to be brought in pots to the West Indies and grown there as a cheap food for slaves working on plantations Mutiny (2) • • Bounty reached Tahiti one year later, 1788 Return voyage delayed • many of the crew had taken “wives” and set up households with the Tahitians Mutiny (3) • Mutiny took place 24 days after the ship left Tahiti for the West Indies • Captain William Bligh (1754 – 1817) and 18 loyal crewmembers were set adrift in a small boat • • miraculously survived long enough to reach the Dutch East Indies, some 3500 miles from Tahiti Remaining crew returned Tahiti and the others setting out to find another island where they and their Polynesian companions could settle Englebert Kaempfer: The History of Japan • Published “The History of Japan” in 1727 based on his travels • Describes the Japanese Emperor in detail, particularly the taboos that applied to him • Emperor was so holy that he had to be carried everywhere on the shoulders of his servants so that his feet would not touch the ground • • Could not cut his hair, beard or nails, since these parts of his body were particularly holy If he had to be “cleaned” it was to be done while he was sleeping