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Directions: Read the following passage, taken from the New World Encyclopedia,
critically: Circle main ideas, underline supporting details, box any unfamiliar words or
ideas.
The Warring States period covers the period from sometime in the fifth century B.C.E.
to the unification of China by the Qin dynasty in 221 B.C.E. It is nominally considered to
be the second part of the Eastern Zhou dynasty, following the Spring and Autumn period,
although the Zhou dynasty itself ended in 256 B.C.E., 35 years earlier than the end of the
Warring States period. Like the Spring and Autumn Period, the king of Zhou acted
merely as a figurehead.
The name “Warring States period” was derived from the Record of the Warring States
compiled in early Han dynasty. The date for the beginning of the Warring States Period is
somewhat in dispute. While it is frequently cited as 475 B.C.E. (following the Spring and
Autumn Period), 403 B.C.E.—the date of the tripartition of the Jin state—is also
sometimes considered as the beginning of the period.
Chinese polity developed a bias towards centralization and unity, which can be traced
from this period. On the one hand, it was a time of rivalry between competing states. On
the other, as states consolidated their rule, they annexed smaller dukedoms. Confucius
had already established unity as an ideal, and the end of this period saw the ascendancy
of the Qin dynasty and China as a single imperial state.
The rise of kingdom
The Warring States period, in contrast to the Spring and Autumn period, was a period
when regional warlords annexed smaller states around them and consolidated their rule.
The process began in the Spring and Autumn period, and by the third century B.C.E.,
seven major states had risen to prominence. These Seven Warring States (Zhànguó
Qīxióng, literally "Seven Hegemonial among the Warring States"), were Qi, the Chu, the
Yan, the Han, the Zhao, the Wei and the Qin. Another sign of this shift in power was a
change in title: warlords still considered themselves dukes of the Zhou dynasty king; but
now the warlords began to call themselves kings (pinyin: wáng), meaning they were
equal to the Zhou king.
The Cultural Sphere
The Warring States period saw the proliferation of iron working in China, replacing
bronze as the dominant metal used in warfare. Areas such as Shu (modern Sichuan) and
Yue (modern Zhejiang) were also brought into the Chinese cultural sphere during this
time. Walls built by the states to keep out northern nomadic tribes and each other were
the precursors of the Great Wall of China. Different philosophies developed into the
Hundred Schools of Thought, including Confucianism (elaborated by Mencius), Daoism
(elaborated by Zhuangzi), Legalism (formulated by Han Feizi) and Mohism (formulated
by Mozi). Trade also became important, and some merchants had considerable power in
politics.
Military tactics also changed. Unlike the Spring and Autumn period, most armies in the
Warring States period made combined use of infantry and cavalry, and the use of chariots
gradually fell into disfavor. Thus from this period on, the nobles in China remained a
literate rather than warrior class, as the kingdoms competed by throwing masses of
soldiers against each other. Arms of soldiers gradually changed from bronze to unified
iron arms. Dagger-axes were an extremely popular weapon in various kingdoms,
especially for the Qin who produced 18-foot-long pikes.
This was also around the time the legendary military strategist Sun Zi wrote The Art of
War which is recognized today as the most influential, and oldest known military strategy
guide. Along with this are other military writings that make up the Seven Military
Classics of ancient China: Jiang Ziya's Six Secret Teachings, The Methods of the Sima,
Sun Zi's The Art of War, Wu Qi, Wei Liaozi, Three Strategies of Huang Shigong, and The
Questions and Replies of Tang Taizong and Li Weigong (the last being made about eight
hundred years after this era ended). Once China was unified, these seven military classics
were locked away and access was restricted due to their tendency to promote revolution.
Partition of Jin
In the Spring and Autumn period, the state of Jin was arguably the most powerful state in
China. However, near the end of the Spring and Autumn period, the power of the ruling
family weakened, and Jin gradually came under the control of six large families. By the
beginning of the Warring States period, after numerous power struggles, there were four
families left: the Zhi family, the Wei family, the Zhao family, and the Han family, with
the Zhi family being the dominant power in Jin. Zhi Yao, the last head of the Zhi family,
attempted a coalition with the Wei family and the Han family to destroy the Zhao family.
However, because of Zhi Yao's arrogance and disrespect towards the other families, the
Wei family and Han family secretly allied with the Zhao family and the three families
launched a surprise attack at Jinyang, which was beseiged by Zhi Yao at the time, and
annihilated the Zhi.
In 403 B.C.E., the three major families of Jin, with the approval of the Zhou king,
partitioned Jin into three states, which was historically known as “The Partition of Jin of
the Three Families.” The new states were Han, Zhao, and Wei. The three family heads
were given the title of marquis, and because the three states were originally part of Jin,
they are also referred to as the “Three Jins.” The state of Jin continued to exist with a tiny
piece of territory until 376 B.C.E. when the rest of the territory was partitioned by the
three Jins.
1) Give two reasons why the Zhou government gave way to civil war among
Chinese states. Also give two differences in military strategies and weapons.