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Peace-making 1918-1919 & The League Of Nations
Key issue: How did the Treaty of Versailles establish peace?
a) The Paris peace conference
The war against Germany ended with an armistice on 11th Nov 1918. The war had been a disaster for Europe.
Millions of soldiers on both sides had been injured. Large areas of France and Belgium had been destroyed.
Even the victorious powers were almost bankrupt from the cost of waging war for 4 yr.
The leaders of the victorious countries met in Paris in 1919 to try to settle the issues raised by war. 1 of the
biggest issues was how to stop a war like the Great War from happening again. However, when the peace
conference met in Jan 1919 it was soon obvious that a settlement would be difficult because the different
leaders had conflicting views on what the peace treaty should do.
Delegates of 32 states attended the Paris Peace Conference. Defeated powers were not allowed to attend and
Russia, who had pulled out of the war in early 1918 and was in the midst of civil war, was also not
represented. The main decisions were taken by the ‘Big 3’: Georges ‘the Tiger’ Clemenceau of France, David
Lloyd George of Britain and Woodrow Wilson of the USA.
France: Georges Clemenceau
France demanded the harshest terms at the conference. The French public wanted revenge on Germany. Most
of the war had been fought on French soil and the industry and agriculture of the north-west had been
virtually ruined. Clemenceau himself had seen France twice invaded by Germany in his lifetime, in 1870 &
1914. His main aim was to gain security for France. He aimed to do this by keeping Germany weak. He
demanded German disarmament, the return of Alsace-Lorraine and payments from Germany for the cost of
the damage to France (reparations).
Britain: David Lloyd George
Lloyd George had become Prime Minister in 1916. He won a convincing victory in the general election of 1918
on his promises to ‘Hang the Kaiser’ & ‘Make Germany Pay’. The British public and press demanded harsh
treatment of Germany. However, Lloyd George himself did not share these views. His main aims were to
preserve the supremacy of the British navy and prevent too harsh a settlement. He feared that, if punished
too heavily, German people would never accept the treaty and may even turn to communism. Lloyd George
also hoped for a swift German recovery, so that her role as a major consumer of British goods could be
resumed. Lloyd George was the compromise view at the conference.
USA: Woodrow Wilson
The USA fought in the Great War for 4 months, though they had declared war in 1917. Wilson believed that
Germany was responsible for the war, but that the treaty should not be too harsh as this would be a barrier to
lasting peace. Wilson did not fully appreciate the depth of feeling against Germany in Britain and France.
Wilson took his 14 point plan to the Paris Peace Conference. He had published this during Jan 1918, when
fighting was still ongoing. At this time, Germany showed little interest in its ideals. This can be seen in the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, signed when Russia wished to make peace in March 1918. Russia had been forced to
give up a large amount of land to Germany and Austria-Hungary and pay a massive war indemnity (sum of
money paid by a defeated country). This was seen as an indication of how Germany would treat the Allied
countries if she were victorious in the war. However, when Germany was defeated, they began to show an
interest in the 14 Points. Indeed, they claimed that they had only agreed to peace on the basis of these points.
The 2 most important ideas in the 14 Points were: self-determination (that people should be allowed to rule
themselves) and international co-operation (settling disputes by countries working together). Wilson also
proposed: that Alsace-Lorraine should be returned to France; a reduction in arms and weapons; the end of
secret treaties; the people of Austria-Hungary to be given independence and an independent Poland to be
established, with a port. Point 14 called for the formation of the League of Nations to guarantee peace.
However, by the time of the Conference it was clear that he was losing support in America. It was not certain
that the USA would sign the treaty and Wilson began to give in more to the views of Clemenceau, hoping that
the League of Nations would be enough to preserve peace.
b) The Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty was signed at the Palace of Versailles on 28 th June 1919. This treaty dealt only with Germany. The
1st section of the treaty made provision for the establishment of the League of Nations. Other sections dealt
with territorial changes, military restrictions, war guilt and reparations.
Territorial Changes
 Alsace and Lorraine were returned to France
 The provinces of Eupen and Malmedy were given to Belgium, after plebiscites (a national vote)
 North Schleswig was transferred to Denmark, after a plebiscite
 The Saar Coalfield was put under the control of the League of Nations for 15 yr. In this time France would
be able to take the coal. After this period, a plebiscite would be held.
 An independent Poland was created, this had been destroyed in the 1700s. The German provinces of west
Prussia and Posen were included in this new country, this became known as the Polish ‘Corridor’ and gave
Poland access to the Baltic Sea. The port of Danzig was made a free city under the League of Nations, with
foreign policy under Polish control. There was a mainly German population in Danzig, but it provided
Poland with a port.
 Upper Silesia was divided between Germany and Poland, after a plebiscite.
 The port of Memel was to be ruled by the League. This was taken by Lithuania in 1923.
 Gains from the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk had to be given up. This land went mostly to Poland, but also to
Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.
 The union of Austria and Germany (Anschluss) was forbidden.
Overall, Germany lost 28,000 miles2 of territory and around 6 million people in Europe. Germany also lost all
of her overseas colonies, covering a total of one million square miles. These colonies were to be distributed
among the powers that were to govern them as ‘mandates’ responsible to the League of Nations. Britain
oversaw the running of most these mandates, including Cameroon and most of German East Africa.
Military Restrictions
 The German Army was limited to 100,000 men. Conscription was forbidden.
 Tanks and military aircraft were banned.
 The German Navy was limited to 15,000 men, 6 battleships and no submarines.
 The Rhineland was demilitarised. This area remained German, but no German troops or weapons were
allowed within 50km of the River Rhine. This was to ensure French security (Clemenceau had originally
wanted the Rhineland to be an independent state, controlled by France). Allied troops were to be
stationed in part of this region for 15 yr, but all were removed by 1930.
War Guilt
Germany was forced to accept responsibility for causing the war in Clause 231 of the Treaty. This legally gave
the Allies justification for demanding reparations payments. It also served as moral condemnation of German
actions.
Reparations
The idea of reparations was not new. The Treaty of Versailles established that compensation should be paid
for the damage done to Allied civilians. However, the problem of reparations was too complex to be solved in
1919, as demands for revenge were so high. A Reparations Commission was set up, which reported in 1921.
Reparations were set at £6,600 million to be paid over 42 yr. This amount was reduced in 1929 and Germany
stopped paying in the 1930s.
c) Germany’s objection to the Treaty
Diktat
German people said that the Treaty was a Diktat (‘dictated peace’) as they had been forced to sign it. Germany
had expected to be able to negotiate the terms. Instead, they were given only 3 weeks to protest and only
minor changes were made. Many Germans, like Hitler, believed that because the peace was a diktat, it was
not morally binding. However, it could be argued that the Germans had no right to argue for better treatment,
as they had forced a diktat on Russia in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
Loss of Land
In the settlement Germany lost over ten per cent of her land and people. Some of these decisions were very
controversial. For instance, 1.5 million German speakers had been placed under Polish rule. Lloyd George
opposed this and argued that it would lead to future war, as it was against the principle of self-determination.
Furthermore, the Polish Corridor split Germany in 2, as the German province of East Prussia was separated
from the rest of the country. Plebiscites were never held in the Polish Corridor or Danzig. The distribution of
colonies to the Allied powers was also seen as unfair by the Germans.
Military Restrictions
Before the outbreak of the Great War, the German Army had been the most powerful in the world. Being
restricted to an army of 100,000 was humiliating. The German government also claimed that it was too small
to defend itself, or even keep order in Germany. Further resentment was caused because the 14 Points had
called for lower levels of armaments in all countries, but Germany was the only country forced to comply.
War Guilt
The Germans bitterly resented being held responsible for the outbreak of war. The Kaiser had abdicated to
Holland at the end of the war, and had been replaced by a democratic government. The Germans claimed it
was unfair to hold this new government responsible for the actions of the Kaiser.
Reparations
The amount set for reparations was far too high. The war had been very costly to Germany and they had lost
industrial land in the treaty. Notable figures such as the British economist, J.M. Keynes, argued that the
amount was more than Germany could afford and would ruin their economy and that of other countries.
However, France was not interested in the German ability to pay. Reparations caused international crises in
the 1920s. Ultimately, the seeming injustice of reparations angered the German people and extended the
bitterness felt about the Treaty of Versailles into the 1930s.
d) Strengths & weaknesses of the Treaty
The strengths of the Treaty were that it did establish peace in Europe and set up an international organisation,
the League of Nations, to preserve the peace.
However, the treaty had massive weaknesses. When Germany recovered from the war it would be
determined to challenge the parts of the treaty which were seen to be unfair. Wilson had put too much faith
in the League of Nations to solve future problems. In the end the US Senate refused to approve the treaty and
America never joined the League. This weakened the whole settlement. A more contentious point of view is
that the Treaty was too lenient towards Germany. Austria-Hungary was split up in the post-war peace
settlement, whereas Germany was left as a country of 60 million people, larger than France (40 million).
Remember! The key issue for this part of our studies is:
How did the Treaty of Versailles establish peace?
You need to know the details of this section for ‘describe’ & source questions. In the essay you could be asked
(for example) to compare which of any 2 peacemakers achieved more from the treaty, which of any 2 terms
upset Germany more, or a question on the strengths or weaknesses of the treaty.
Key issue: Why did the League of Nations fail in its aim to keep peace?
a) Membership of the League 1919-1939
The League of Nations formally came into existence on 10th Jan 1920, with 42 member countries. At its largest,
there were 58 members. When the idea of the League was 1 st proposed, it was thought that all of the
victorious countries would join. However, the absence of some great powers meant that the League lacked
influence. Despite Wilson’s important role in the League’s creation, the US Senate blocked American entry.
Germany was initially not allowed to join and regarded it as the ‘League of Victors’. Russia (the USSR, after
1923) was not invited to join, as it was communist.
Germany was allowed to join in 1926, but left under Hitler’s leadership in 1933. Russia joined in 1934, until the
League’s collapse. Japan left in 1933 and Italy withdrew in 1936. This meant that the League often resembled
a Franco-British alliance. This was particularly a problem when foreign policy in these countries was weak, for
example, in the period of appeasement in the 1930s.
b) Organisation of the League
The Covenant of the League was written into all of the peace treaties at the end of the Great War. The
Covenant was 26 articles which all member states had to agree to. The articles included: the reduction and
control of armaments, to avoid a future arms race; the maintenance of peace through collective security (that
if one state was attacked, all member states would act against the aggressor); the compulsory registration of
all treaties, to avoid secret alliances.
The Assembly contained representatives of all the member states. It was, in theory, the most important body
in the League. The assembly met once a year to discuss general topics, such as changes to treaties and the
admission of new members. All decisions had to be unanimous (everybody had to agree).
The Council was supposed to have 5 permanent members, but this was reduced to 4 when the USA did not
join. The 4 countries were Britain, France, Italy and Japan. There were also 4 non-permanent members,
elected by the Assembly for a period of 3 yr. This no. was increased to 9 non-permanent seats in 1926.
Decisions had to be unanimous. The Council met more frequently than the Assembly, perhaps 3 or 4x a yr. The
main duty of the Council was to solve any disputes that might occur between states, by negotiation if possible.
If a country began a war of aggression, then collective security was to be enforced by all League members.
The Council could decide which sanction to use. This could be:
 Moral Condemnation
This meant that all countries would put pressure on the aggressor in order to shame the country into stopping
the war and accepting the League’s decision.
 Economic Sanctions
All countries in the League would stop trading with the aggressor.
 Military Sanctions
All countries in the League would contribute to an armed force that would act against the aggressor. This
sanction was never used as countries wished to avoid war at this time. Even in the 1930s, countries were still
financially unable to contemplate involvement in another war. The lack of a League of Nations army was a
serious weakness of the organisation.
The Permanent Court of International Justice was based at The Hague, in Holland and consisted of 15 judges
from different member countries of the League. It dealt with disputes over international law, such as the
terms of treaties. It had no means of enforcing its decisions, so was dependent on the goodwill of members.
The Court was so popular that in 1926 the USA joined this body, on the condition that it did not sit on matters
concerning them without their permission.
The Secretariat conducted the daily business of the League. It was an international civil service, drawn from all
member nations. This body looked after the paperwork, prepared agendas and wrote resolutions and reports
for carrying out the decisions of the League.
c) The Manchurian crisis, 1931-193
Despite its weaknesses, the League has some initial successes in the 1920s, for example, the 1925 border
dispute between Greece and Bulgaria. However, these positive results were in incidents involving small
countries. In the 1930s a no. of large powers became aggressive, which the League was unable to deal with.
The 1st of these was the Manchurian Crisis.
Japan faced economic hardship in the early 1930s. The government had been unhappy with the settlement at
the end of the Great War and the worldwide depression caused by the Wall Street Crash in 1929 had reduced
Japanese exports. Japan had an expanding population, overcrowding and a need for increased food
production and exports, especially in the silk trade. There was increased poverty and unrest. Many, including
the army, thought the solution would be to expand into Manchuria.
Since 1904, Japan had been allowed to station soldiers in Manchuria to guard the South Manchurian railway.
In Sept 1931 the Japanese claimed that there had been an explosion on the line at Mukden, and blamed the
Chinese. It is not clear whether or not this explosion actually took place, but this gave the Japanese army their
excuse to invade. The Japanese Army defeated the Chinese quickly at Mukden. It is interesting to note that
this action was taken by the army, without government permission. However, the invasion was very popular.
The League did not act decisively over this act of aggression. China appealed to the League and the Lytton
Commission was set up to look at the evidence. The Commission did not report back for a yr and when it did,
the weakness of Chinese rule was pointed out, along with Japanese grievances. Nevertheless, the report
condemned the Japanese invasion and recommended that Manchuria should become a self-governing state.
In response to this, Japan reorganised the province and announced the creation of the ‘independent state’ of
Manchukuo. By early 1933, Japan controlled the whole of Manchuria. In late 1933, the League issued another
report, stating that Manchukuo was a puppet state of Japan and that Japanese troops should be withdrawn.
This was totally ineffective. Japan resigned from the League and attacked another Chinese province, Jehol.
The Manchurian Crisis was a significant turning point for the League. It had totally failed to restrain a powerful,
aggressive country. The League did not act effectively because:
 Economic sanctions would have been worthless as Japan’s main trading partner was the USA.
 All League members were suffering from the economic depression and did not want to become involved in
international problems. Britain did not want its trade in Asia to be affected by problems in the Far East.
 Britain did not want to risk its fleet in the Far East.
 France had no intention of sending troops.
 The nearest country which could potentially send troops was the USSR, which was not a League member.
Ultimately, countries were not willing to act against Japan. It was seen as a useful ally against communist
expansion in the Far East and Manchuria seemed very distant. The Japanese invasion was even seen as a
positive act by some, as it restored order to the region. At the time, the failure over Manchuria was not seen
as significant by many, however, these events encouraged Italy and Germany to become more aggressive,
confident that the League would not act.
d) The Abyssinian crisis, 1935-196
Italy was unhappy with the peace settlement at the end of the Great War. Italy had left the Triple Alliance in
1914 and not entered the war until 1915, on the side of the Allies. She had hoped to gain land from Austria at
the end of the conflict, but had received less than originally promised. This had led to the unpopularity of the
government and contributed to the eventual rise of the fascist dictator, Benito Mussolini.
In order to boost his popularity, Mussolini planned to invade Abyssinia (Ethiopia). This was 1 of the few African
countries not already colonised by Europeans and it was bordered by existing Italian colonies in Eritrea and
Somaliland. The Italians had made a previous attempt to seize Abyssinia, but had faced a humiliating defeat at
the Battle of Adowa in 1896. Mussolini would gain significantly from a successful invasion. Not only would he
be seen as restoring Italian national pride, but the rich pastureland and raw materials of Abyssinia would
benefit the Italian economy. Abyssinia would also provide a market for exports and divert people from the
problems of the depression.
Mussolini was also encouraged by the attitude of other large powers in the League. Italy was a permanent
member of the Council, as Japan had been before the Manchurian Crisis. The crisis in China had given
Mussolini the impression that the League would be reluctant to act against a major aggressor. Furthermore, in
1935 Britain, France and Italy had formed the Stresa Front against Germany’s attempts to change the Treaty of
Versailles. The French were so concerned about the rise of Hitler, that they gave Mussolini the impression that
they would not oppose him in Abyssinia.
In Dec 1934 a clash occurred between Italian and Abyssinian soldiers at Wal-Wal, on the border between
Abyssinia and Somaliland. The dispute went to the League for a decision, but it was clear that Mussolini was
preparing for a full invasion. Italian troops built up on the border. The British Foreign Secretary, Sir Samuel
Hoare, made a speech stating that Britain would support collective security. This was partly in response to the
Peace Ballot of 1935, which showed clear support among the people of Britain for the League of Nations.
Nevertheless, Italian forces invaded Abyssinia on 3rd Oct 1935. Mussolini claimed that he was trying to bring
civilisation to the region.
The invasion of Abyssinia was a clear act of aggression. The League was forced to act. As Italy and Abyssinia
were closer than Manchuria, action could be more effective and the League condemned Italy’s actions (to the
surprise of Mussolini). However, the League was again slow to introduce sanctions. Trade in arms to Italy and
Italian imports were immediately banned, however, it took two months to decide on other sanctions. Britain
and France were extremely concerned not to lose Mussolini as an ally against Hitler, they therefore did not
want to be too harsh. Finally, a limited ban was placed on exports and financial loans to Italy. However, key
goods which Mussolini required to sustain the invasion, such as oil, coal, iron and steel, were not included in
the list of banned items. The USA supplied oil to Italy, France continued to provide iron and steel and Britain
supplied coal. The British had been particularly concerned that, if coal was included on the list of sanctions, it
would lead to unemployment at home. Britain and France could also have stopped the Italian invasion by
closing the Suez Canal to Italian ships, however, they again did not want to alienate Mussolini. In the
Abyssinian Crisis, Britain and France were clearly self-interested, rather than defending the principles of the
League.
The final insult came in Dec 1935. Despite the use of modern weaponry, such as tanks, aeroplanes and poison
gas, the Italians were not as successful against the Abyssinians, with their spears and out of date rifles, as they
had hoped to be. Sir Samuel Hoare and the French Prime Minister, Pierre Laval, suggested a secret agreement
2
to solve the crisis, the Hoare Laval Pact. They proposed to partition Abyssinia, giving 3 of the land to Italy. Italy
would get the best areas for farming & minerals. The Abyssinians would keep the poor, mountainous land. The
agreement was leaked before it could be agreed upon, to such outcry that Hoare was forced to resign and the
Pact was dropped.
In May 1936 the Italians captured the capital of Abyssinia, Addis Ababa. In June, the Emperor of Abyssinia,
Haile Selassie, made a personal appeal to the League for help. However, the invasion was complete and
Abyssinia became part of the Italian empire.
The Abyssinian Crisis is widely seen as the death of the League of Nations. Italy walked out of the League in
May 1936 and sanctions were dropped in July. Only Britain, France and the USSR remained as Great Powers
within the League. It had failed as a means for keeping peace. Hitler had taken advantage of the Abyssinian
Crisis to remilitarise the Rhineland in March 1936, judging correctly that the League would be too occupied by
the Italian invasion to oppose him. The crisis also ended the Stresa Front. In 1936, Mussolini signed the RomeBerlin Axis with Hitler. In 1937, Japan joined the Axis and it became the Anti-Comintern Pact (directed against
the Communist International). Italy formally withdrew from the League in 1937. Europe once again seemed to
be dividing into 1 sides.
e) Reasons for failure
The League lost all influence after the Abyssinian Crisis. It was not consulted over the German invasions of
Czechoslovakia or Poland which led onto the outbreak of World War 2. After Dec 1939 it did not meet again
and it was dissolved in 1946. The League had totally failed to keep peace for a number of reasons:
 The membership of the League created problems. There was an absence of a no. of great powers. The USA
never joined, Russia did not join until 1934, Germany was only a member between 1926 & 1933, Japan left
in 1933 & Italy withdrew in 1936. Without the membership of these major powers for long periods of time,
the League lacked influence. The responsibility for leadership was left with an unwilling Britain and France.
In the 1930s, when both of these countries followed a policy of appeasement, this made the League
particularly weak. The absence of important powers also undermined the effectiveness of any sanctions
applied, as in the Manchurian Crisis.
 The League did not implement effective sanctions. It was impossible to recruit a force to impose military
action, due to the unwillingness of member countries. A resolution had been passed in 1923 stating that
each country would decide for itself whether or not to fight in a crisis, this made a nonsense of collective
security. The League found itself only able to recommend action and sanctions were frequently ½ hearted.
For instance, the limited economic sanctions taken against Italy over Abyssinia. Moral condemnation was a
weak sanction, particularly against the aggressive dictators of the 1930s.
 The League was associated with the Treaty of Versailles. This initially gave it the air of being an
organisation for the benefit of the victorious powers. The League had to defend the decisions made in the
Treaty. This was caused trouble, for instance, Italy had been disappointed by the lack of territory awarded
and Germans found themselves living in Poland and Czechoslovakia. The League was not a suitable
organisation to revise the Treaty.
 The rules of the League weakened the capacity for firm, decisive action. The need for a unanimous vote in
both the Assembly and Council meant that decisions were slow, or non-existent. Weaker powers were able
to block any proposed action by stronger countries.
 The worldwide depression of the 1930s meant that countries were even more unwilling to consider
military action or effective economic sanctions. It also contributed to the rise of extreme right wing
governments in Japan and Germany. It also made countries more aggressive, as some looked to expand to
solve economic hardship.
 Countries were self-interested. Members of the League such as Japan, Italy and Germany refused to keep
to the rules. France and Britain also preferred to look to national interest, rather than international, which
made them unwilling to implement effective sanctions.
 The Manchurian Crisis damaged the League’s prestige and encouraged the aggression of other countries.
 The Abyssinian Crisis was the death of the League. It was not taken seriously again. Small states lost all
faith in the ability of the League to protect them against aggressors, Hitler became more confident that the
League would not stand up to him and Mussolini drew closer to Hitler, annoyed by the sanctions.
Ultimately the League failed due to a combination of bad management, bad faith, bad luck and lack of
strength. People assumed that the existence of the League would guarantee peace, as the threat of war by a
group of nations would prevent aggression. However, in the 1930s it became clear that the League posed no
threat to aggressive countries. The League members, especially Britain and France, were not prepared to
support it, either by strong economic measures, or military sanctions. The League had ‘a voice to protest, but
not a finger to raise’.
Remember! The key issue for this part of our studies is:
Why did the League of Nations fail in its aim to keep peace?
Are you able to explain how the issues examined here caused the collapse of the League? Remember you also
need to know details for ‘describe’ & source questions.