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CHAPTER 2
Small Kingdoms and Mighty Empires in the
Near East (ca 1100–513 B.C.)
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, students should be able to describe the dissemination of
Egypt’s culture to its African neighbors. They should be able to outline the evolution of the Hebrew
state and identify key characteristics of daily life in Hebrew society. They should also be able to discuss
the forces that shaped Hebrew religious thought. They should be able to explain the rise and fall of the
Assyrian Empire. Finally, they should be able to describe the events that led to the creation of the
Persian Empire.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I.
II.
Disruption and Diffusion
A. After the First Empires
1. The political disruption of the fall of empires was accompanied by a period of cultural
diffusion.
2. Many small kingdoms survived with a largely shared culture.
B. The End of Egyptian Power
1. The invasions of the Sea People brought the period of Egyptian power to an end.
2. Egypt concentrated on self-defense.
3. Egyptian decline opened the way for the rise of the Nubians.
4. The Kushites reunified Egypt in the eighth century B.C.
5. Egyptian culture remained a powerful regional force.
C. The Rise of Phoenicia
1. The Phoenicians inhabited several cities along the coast of modern Lebanon.
2. They built their civilization around seafaring and trade, planting trading posts around
the Mediterranean.
3. The Phoenicians’ most important cultural contribution was the development of an
alphabet.
The Children of Israel
A. Political History of the Hebrews
1. The only source for much of the history of the Hebrews is the Bible.
2. Moses led the Hebrews out of Egypt and into Palestine in the thirteenth century B.C.
3. The greatest threat to the Hebrews was the Philistines.
4. Saul (ca 1000 B.C.) established a monarchy over the twelve Hebrew tribes.
5. Saul’s work was carried on by David and his son Solomon (ca 965–935 B.C.).
6. After his death, Solomon’s kingdom broke into two halves: Israel and Judah.
7. Israel was wiped out by the Assyrians and Judah was conquered by the Babylonians.
B. The Evolution of Jewish Religion
1. The Covenant was a kind of contract between Yahweh and the Hebrews.
2. Yahweh was the Jews’ only god (monotheism).
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Chapter 2: Small Kingdoms and Mighty Empires in the Near East (ca 1100–513 B.C.)
3.
4.
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Ten Commandments were a step in the evolution of Hebrew law.
The Hebrews had a very different understanding of the nature of the divine than the
Mesopotamians.
5. Religious leaders were important in Judaism, but not as important as the sacred texts
they interpreted.
C. Family Life in Israel
1. As the Hebrews moved from nomadism to settled agriculture, common ownership of
land gave way to family ownership.
2. The development of urban life created new economic opportunities.
3. Social and economic developments prompted the compilation of the Torah and the
Talmud.
III. Assyria, the Military Monarchy
A. The Power of Assyria
1. Many Near Eastern kingdoms fell to Tiglath-Pileser III (774–727 B.C.) and Sargon II
(721–705 B.C.).
2. Assyria’s success was due to sophisticated military organization.
3. The Assyrians developed a wide variety of siege machinery and sapping techniques for
attacking fortifications.
B. Assyrian Rule and Culture
1. The Assyrian kings organized their conquests into an empire.
2. Despite their apparent invincibility, its fall came quickly in the seventh century B.C.
3. Assyrian art, in particular the sculptures and sculpted friezes, influenced Persian, and
thus, Western art.
IV. The Empire of the Persian Kings
A. The Land of the Medes and the Persians
1. Persians (or Iranians) were Indo-European nomads, like the Aryans who conquered
India in the second millennium B.C. They arrived in present-day Iran around 1000 B.C.
2. Two groups of Iranians coalesced into larger units: the Persians in Persia and the
Medes in Media.
3. In 612 B.C., the Medes joined with the Babylonians to overthrow the Assyrians.
B. The Rise of the Persian Empire (550–540 B.C.)
1. The Persian ruler Cyrus the Great (r. 559530 B.C.) created the largest empire yet to
exist in the Near East.
2. Cyrus had an enlightened view of empire, practiced religious tolerance, and allowed
the subject peoples of his empire great autonomy.
C. Thus Spake Zarathustra
1. Early Iranian religion remained close to nature.
2. The Persian Emperor Darius (r. 521486 B.C.) adopted the Zoroastrian religion.
3. Zoroaster preached a new concept of divinity and human life.
4. He described the cosmos as a battle between opposing forces of good and evil,
represented by the gods Ahuramazda and Ahriman.
5. He taught that individuals must decide whether to choose Ahuramazda or Ahriman.
6. Zoroaster preached that there was a last judgment.
7. Zoroastrian thought influenced Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
D. Persia’s World Empire
1. Although the Persians never established a permanent foothold in Europe, Darius (r.
521–486 B.C.) and his son Xerxes (r. 486–464 B.C.) created a world empire.
2. The Persians knew how to preserve the peace.
3. Persian kings took their responsibilities seriously.
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10
Chapter 2: Small Kingdoms and Mighty Empires in the Near East (ca 1100–513 B.C.)
LECTURE SUGGESTIONS
1.
“Perceptions of Black People in Antiquity.” What was the role of blacks in ancient societies such
as Egypt and Persia? How were blacks perceived? Was there extreme racial prejudice in
antiquity? Sources: M. I. Finley, Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology (1980); F. M. Snowden,
Before Color Prejudice (1983); L. Bugner, ed., The Image of the Black in Western Art, Vol. 1
(1983).
2.
“Women in the Ancient Near East.” What were the roles of women in Egypt, Palestine, Assyria,
and Persia in the first millennium? How can we know? Sources: A. Cameron and A. Kuhrt,
Images of Women in Antiquity (1983); H. W. F. Skaggs, Everyday Life in Babylonia and Assyria
(1987); R. N. Frye, History of Ancient Iran (1984).
USING PRIMARY SOURCES
“God and Man in the Ancient Near East.” Have students read the selection from “The Epic of
Gilgamesh” in the “Primary Source” section of this manual and the “burning bush” segment of the Old
Testament. Have students list the ways that each man (Utanapishtim and Moses) communicated with
deities (Gilgamesh and Yahweh). What were the deities’ instructions for mankind? What topics of
“conversation” went on between them? What do these “conversations” tell us about what the SumeroBabylonians and Hebrews believed about the relationship between God and humankind? After students
compile lists of conversation topics, have them write a short paper in which they elaborate their ideas.
Completed papers might be read in class and used to initiate a discussion about the relationships of
gods, goddesses, and people in the ancient Near East.
CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
I.
Classroom Discussion Suggestions
A. How was Hebrew monotheism different from the religion espoused by the Egyptian pharaoh
Akhenaton?
B. What was family life like in the Hebrew culture?
C. How was Assyrian art influenced by the militaristic nature of its society?
D. What Zoroastrian influences can be found in later religions?
II. Doing History
A. Have students browse through books of the Old Testament and record passages in which
women are mentioned. Then have them use this data as the basis for a term paper on women
in Hebrew society.
B. Have students write short papers on the kinds of food eaten by various classes of people in
one of the civilizations mentioned in this chapter.
C. Have students conduct research and write term papers on the views of “hell” in Judaic and
Zoroastrian beliefs.
III. Cooperative Learning Activities
A. Jigsaw: Experts on the Ancient Near East
Employ the jigsaw approach to cooperative learning discussed in the section on using
cooperative learning in the Western Civilization class. To apply this approach, organize the
class into six-member teams. Team 1 is charged with learning about the Hebrews; Team 2,
the Assyrians; Team 3, the Persians (for larger classes, instructors may want to reassign the
societies studied in Chapter 1: Team 4, the Sumerians; Team 5, the Egyptians; Team 6, the
Hittites). Each team divides up the material into six sections: 1) history; 2) location
(geography); 3) governmental organization; 4) religion; 5) social classes; 6) art, education,
technology. Each of the six teams should have an “expert” on each of the six subjects. Allow
for the experts on all six teams to meet and discuss their sections. Then have the teams
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Chapter 2: Small Kingdoms and Mighty Empires in the Near East (ca 1100–513 B.C.)
11
regroup and have all “experts” teach their group what they have learned about their subject.
An expert on Hebrew social classes would have learned not only about Hebrew social
organization but about social organization in five other societies as well. This activity should
help students make generalizations about society in the ancient Near East.
B.
Using the Student Teams Achievement Divisions (STAD) for an Examination
You might use the STAD for testing the usefulness of cooperative learning. Some instructors
give a minimum of three exams per academic term; others administer more. To experiment
with the STAD, use the teams organized in the above cooperative learning activity as study
groups. They should study lecture notes, text, and review the work completed by the team.
After studying in their teams, the students should complete the cooperative learning exam.
The instructor then averages the one common exam grade with the student’s individual test
grade. A wealth of research confirms that cooperative learning testing improves student
grades.
MAP ACTIVITY
1.
2.
Using an outline map of the ancient Near East, shade in the seventh century B.C. Near Eastern
kingdoms. Label the following places on the map:
a.
Nineveh
b.
Jerusalem
c.
Babylon
d.
Damascus
e.
Byblos
f.
Sidon
g.
Tyre
h.
Joppa
i.
Abu Simbel
j.
Nippur
Using Map 2.1 Small Kingdoms of the Near East as a reference, answer the following questions.
a.
Why did political fragmentation not lead to cultural and social fragmentation in the
aftermath of the invasions of the thirteenth century B.C.?
b.
How did geography shape the relationship between the kingdoms that emerged after the
collapse of Egyptian and Hittite power?
AUDIOVISUAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
The Bible as Literature: Part I—Saga and Story in the Old Testament. (27 min. Color.
Encyclopedia Britannica Films.)
2.
The Bible as Literature: Part II—History, Poetry, and Drama in the Old Testament. (24 min.
Color. Encyclopedia Britannica Films.)
3.
Israel. (25 min. Color. National Geographic Films.)
4.
Jerusalem: Within these Walls. (59 min. Color. National Geographic Films.)
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.
12
Chapter 2: Small Kingdoms and Mighty Empires in the Near East (ca 1100–513 B.C.)
5.
Chronicles and Kings. (52 min. Color. Films for the Humanities and Sciences.)
6.
World Geography Series. (Interactive Videodisc. National Geographic Educational Services.)
7.
The Real Picture Atlas. (CD-ROM. Learning Services.)
8.
Bible Library. (CD-ROM. National Audio-Visual Supply.)
9.
World GeoGraph.(CD-ROM. Cambridge Developmental Laboratory, Inc.)
10. Global Explorer. (CD-ROM. National School Products.)
11. World Religions. (CD-ROM. National School Products.)
12. Countries of the World Encyclopedia. (CD-ROM. National School Products.)
13. The Israel Museum: Online Archaeology Exhibits (www.imj.org.il/eng/archaeology/online.htm)
14. Assryian Art (www.betnahrain.org/Gallery/Ancient_Assyrian_Art/assyria_art_1.htm)
15. Table of the Phoenician Alphabet (phoenicia.org/tblalpha.html)
INTERNET RESOURCES
1.
The Phoenicians (http://www.mariner.org/educationalad/ageofex/)
2.
Herodotus: Hellenas and the Phoenicians (www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/430phoenicia.html)
3.
Canaan and Ancient Israel at the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and
Anthropology (http://www.museum.upenn.edu/Canaan/index.html)
4.
Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Israel (www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/asbook06.html)
5.
Assyria Online (www.aina.org/aol)
6.
Oriental Institute Museum: University of Chicago (http://oi.uchicago.edu/museum/)
7.
Assyria, Babylonia, Sumer (www.mesopotamia.co.uk/menu.html)
8.
Palaces of Assyria (www.mesopotamia.co.uk/palaces/home_set.html)
SUGGESTED READING
C. Gates, The Archeology of Urban Life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece, and Rome (2003),
provides a comprehensive survey of ancient life primarily from an archaeological point of view, but one
that includes cultural and social interests. D. B. Redford, Egypt, Canann, and Israel in Ancient Times
(1992), is an excellent study of relations among the three states. D. O’Connor, Ancient Nubia (1994),
which is well illustrated, gives the freshest treatment of the region and points to its importance in
African developments.
D.N. Edwards, The Nubian Past (2004), examines the history of Nubia and the Sudan, incorporating
archaeological evidence to supplement historical sources. R. G. Morkot, The Black Pharaohs (2000),
examines the growth of the Kushite kingdom and its rule over pharaonic Egypt in the eighth century
B.C. T. Smith, Wretched Kush (2003), examines Nubia to understand its native culture and the Egyptian
influence on it. G. Herm, The Phoenicians (1975), treats Phoenician seafaring and commercial
enterprises, as does the more recent G. E. Markoe, The Phoenicians (2000), a fresh investigation of
these sailors at home and abroad in the western Mediterranean. Similarly, M. Gil, A History of
Palestine (1997), provides the most recent treatment of the region.
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Chapter 2: Small Kingdoms and Mighty Empires in the Near East (ca 1100–513 B.C.)
13
The Jews have been one of the best-studied people in the ancient world, so the reader can easily find
many good treatments of Jewish history and society. A rewarding approach is J. Bartlett, ed.,
Archaeology and Biblical Interpretation (1997). Similar is R. S. Zwi Werblowsky and G. Wigoder,
eds., The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion (1997). For the Jews in Egypt, two good studies
have appeared: J. K. Hoffmeier, Israel in Egypt (1997), which discusses the evidence for the
authenticity of the tradition concerning Exodus. R. Kalmin, Jewish Babylonia between Persia and
Roman Palestine (2006), treats the Jews who stayed in Babylonia after others had returned to the
Mediterranean coast. J. Assmann, Moses the Egyptian (1997), which is a study in monotheism. B. N.
Porter, ed., One God or Many? (2000), explores the concept of monotheism in Assyrian and Jewish
religion. A broader interpretation of Jewish religious developments can be found in S. Niditch, Ancient
Israelite Religion (1997). G. Alon, The Jews in Their Land (1989), covers the Talmudic age. J. Pastor,
Land and Economy in Ancient Palestine (1997), discusses the basics of economic life of the period. S.
Niditch, War in the Hebrew Bible (1992), addresses the ethics of violence in the Bible. H. W. Attridge,
ed., Of Scribes and Scrolls (1990), gives a fascinating study of the Hebrew Bible and of Christian
origins. Turning to politics, M. Smith, Palestinian Parties and Politics That Shaped the Old Testament,
2d ed. (1987), takes a practical look at events. W. D. Davis et al., The Cambridge History of Judaism,
vol. 1 (1984), begins an important synthesis with work on Judaism in the Persian period. R. Hachlili,
Ancient Jewish Art and Archaeology in the Land of Israel (1988), attempts to trace the development and
meaning of Jewish art in its archaeological context. C. Meyers, Discovering Eve: Ancient Israelite
Women in Context (1988) examines the roles of Jewish women and P.A. Bird, Missing Persons and
Mistaken Identities: Women and Gender in Ancient Israel (1997) discusses many issues involving
gender.
The Assyrians, despite their achievements, have not attracted the scholarly attention that other Near
Eastern peoples have. Even though woefully outdated, A. T. Olmstead, History of Assyria (1928) has
the merit of being soundly based in the original sources. H. W. F. Saggs, Everyday life in Babylonia
and Assyria, rev. ed. (1987), offers a general and well-illustrated survey of Mesopotamian history from
3000 to 300 B.C. M. T. Larsen, The Conquest of Assyria (1996), gives a fascinating account of the
modern discovery of the Assyrians. Those who appreciate the vitality of Assyrian art should start with
the masterful work of R. D. Barnett and W. Forman, Assyrian Palace Reliefs, 2d ed. (1970), an
exemplary combination of fine photographs and learned, but not difficult, discussion.
M. Brosius, The Persians (2006), covers all of Persian history from the beginnings to Alexander the
Great. A comprehensive survey of Persian history is given by one of the leading scholars in the field, R.
N. Frye, History of Ancient Iran (1984). I. Gershevitch, ed., The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 2
(1985) provides the reader with a full account of ancient Persian history, but many of the chapters are
out-of-date. E. Herzfeld, Iran in the Ancient East (1987), puts Persian history in a broad context. Most
welcome is M. A. Dandamaev, A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire (1989), which discusses
in depth the history of the Persians and the organization of their empire. Finally, M. Boyce, a leading
scholar in the field, provides a sound and readable treatment of the essence of Zoroastrianism in her
Zoroastrianism (1979).
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