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Sociology Paper 1 (November 2008)
Section A: Research Methods
1. Sociologists who wish to collect qualitative data often use unstructured or
informal interviews. This type of interview usually consists of a list of topics
the interviewer wishes to discuss. The interviewer will ask a number of
open‑ ended questions, which may stimulate discussions or further
questions. The interviewer will carry out the interview in a relaxed manner in
order to put the interviewee at ease.
This form of interview is said to have greater validity than more formal
interviews as it can produce data that has greater depth. However, critics of
this approach say that it can lead to interviewer bias.
Observation is another approach used by sociologists to collect qualitative
data.
(a)
In sociological research what is meant by the following terms:
i. unstructured interviews
[2]
An open-ended discussion between the respondent and the interviewer. The
interviewee will be free to discuss any areas within the framework of the
research.
ii. validity
[2]
Validity is concerned with whether the findings of the research actually
provide a true picture of what is being studied.
iii. interviewer bias.
[2]
Interview bias is concerned with the answers given in an interview, which are
influenced by the presence or behaviour of the interviewer.
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(b)
Describe two problems that can occur when conducting
unstructured interviews.
[4]
 bias – there is more chance of the researcher making his views known
to the respondent even by facial expression/ body language
 time consuming - because a rapport has to be developed with the
respondents to build up trust and it may take a long time to conduct
the interviews and analyse the data from them
 inexperience – interviewers are often dealing with sensitive areas and
so if they are not experienced and good interviewers the respondent
may not be very cooperative
 problems of reliability – it is difficult to check the researcher’s
analysis and conclusions
(c)
Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of using
observations as means of collecting data.
[4]
Advantages include:
 provides a first hand knowledge of the group being studied - as
the groups get more used to the researcher they are more likely to act
naturally
 observation takes place over a longer period - because the
amount of time is longer than other methods the researcher can get a
valid account of the group’s behaviour.
 Subjects more likely act naturally - as the subjects get more used
to the presence of the researcher they are more likely to act naturally
Disadvantages include:
 time consuming – all the data has to be collected over a longer
period of time
 expensive – because of the length of time it takes to conduct the
observation – sometimes months – it will cost a lot of money
 danger of the researcher becoming too involved – working with
the subjects
 Subjects may change their behaviour – as they are being studied
the subjects may modify their behaviour when being observed – ‘the
Hawthorne effect’ and the researcher may be unaware of this
 Validity – the researcher may interpet/analyse the interactions from a
particular point of view (gender/ethnic/class) which will affect the
validity of the research
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(d)
Suggest two advantages of using unstructured interviews in
sociological research.
[4]
Advantages include:
 Issues can be explored in more depth – there may not be a time
limit to the interview so the respondent can give more detailed data.
 Accuracy - such interviews may have more accuracy because of the
relationship established with the interviewee.
 New research directions - during the course of the interview may
emerge as the interviewee may reveal data not considered by the
researcher.
(e)
i. Distinguish between covert and overt forms of observation.
[2]
Covert observation refers to viewing the target group without the group’s
knowledge.
Overt observation refers to the situation where the observed group is
aware that they are being observed.
ii. Distinguish between participant and non‑ participant forms of
observation.
[2]
Participant observation refers to the type of research where the research
engages in the activities of the group.
Non participant observation refers to the type of research where the
observer does not become involved with the group in question, but studies
them without any intervention.
(f)
Identify and explain two advantages and two disadvantages of
using covert participant observation in sociological research.
[8]
Advantages include:
 Insight into the group - being involved in the research enables them
to gain a real insight into the working and perceptions of the group;
 suitablilty - covert participant observation may be the only method to
research certain subjects
 flexibility - such research is flexible and sometimes because of this
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new research directions may emerge
 more natural – participants don’t know that they are being watched
and so will behave in a more natural way
The disadvantages include:
 the failure of the group to accept the researcher – if this happens
the validity of the study may be damaged
 research results too subjective - the observer may start to become
too close to their subjects and therefore write up their research too
subjectively
 cost – this kind of research is expensive and time consuming.
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Section B: Culture and Socialisation
2. Children as they grow up in a particular society learn its norms and values.
(a)
What is meant by the term norms?
[2]
Social rules that define correct behaviour in a society or group
(b)
Describe two ways children learn to interact with other members of
society.
[4]
Children learn to interact with society through:
 Parents – through primary socialisation in the home, children learn the
norms and values of society – the right way and the wrong way to
behave
 School – through Secondary socialisation at school, children learn the
norms and values of society and the rules and regulations that they
need to follow
 peer group – through friends children learn how to interact with other
children and what is acceptable behaviour and what is not
 media – from the media children learn about popular culture like
fashion and music – what is popular and what is not
(c)
Explain why childhood is seen as a distinct stage in life in modern
industrial societies.
[6]
Childhood is dependent on the time and culture you live in ‘
Childhood is seen as a distinct phase because of a number of factors:
 wealth of industrial societies – modern societies are more affluent
which enables the provision of free education for children
 freedom from paid employment - the fact that modern societies
now have more money means that children no longer need to work
 Change in laws to protect children - introduction of laws such as
the Education Acts/Factory Acts stopped children being treated as
adults
 growth of children’s legal rights – charters for children’s rights are
accepted by most countries now and children enjoy much greater
protection than ever before. They also have more say in what happens
to them.
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This was in contrast to pre- industrial
 agriculture - the main form of work was farming and the skills
needed to be passed on to the children through socialisation
 Economic necessity - it was important for children to do some form
of ‘adult’ work as soon as they were physically able to so that they
could contribute towards household expenses
In developing societies – childhood is not the same
 poverty - in poorer societies children have to contribute to the family
income
 Lack of educational opportunities – because children have to work
to help support the family this means that they don’t get the chance to
go to school
(d)
To what extent is human behaviour shaped by socialisation?
[8]
Discuss ‘nature’ versus ‘nurture’
‘nature’
 ‘nature’ refers to what a person inherits through their genes.
 Each person inherits 50% of their genes from their mother and 50%
from their father
 genes determine such things as what sex a child will be and hair and
eye colour
 Biologists argue that genetic influence can also explain social behaviour
and characteristics.
 For example, aggression, personality and intelligence are all
inherited according to Biologists
 instinct means behaviour programmed in the genes.
 All sociologists see socialisation as very important.
 They disagree on whether it benefits everyone in society or whether it
gives some groups more advantages than others.
‘Nurture’
 When sociologists talk about nurture they are referring to all the
behaviour we learn through the socialisation process.
 The things we do are a result of what we have learned.
 This means that our experiences and our environment play a large
part in shaping our behaviour.
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 Our social behaviour comes from the expectations and guidelines found
within each society and culture
 Cultures share norms and values
 Values describe a shared moral system where most people believe in
certain ideas
 Norms are the unspoken an unwritten rules of behaviour in everyday
life. We learn them through socialisation.
These norms and values passed on to everyone in society through
socialisation
How Important is socialisation?
 Sociologists think socialisation is important because it helps to keep
social order.
 Some have argued that for society to exist and survive people have to
find a way to live together without constant fighting.
 Also, large societies cannot rely on the forces of law and order to keep
the peace and make sure people obey the rules.
 The socialisation process allows people to learn the rules of society
and to see what happens if these rules are broken.
 All sociologists see socialisation as very important.
 They disagree on whether it benefits everyone in society or whether it
gives some groups more advantages than others
Children are socialised from birth
 Primary Socialisation - children learn from their parents what they
should or shouldn’t do in a particular situation – for example how to
behave at the table or in other social situations
Socialisation continues throughout life
 Secondary Socialisation - we continue learning throughout life- for
example at school or work there are expectations and people learn the
basic attitudes and skills necessary to mix socially with others
To support your arguments that human behaviour is shaped by
socialisation talk about ‘unsocialised children’ who have been
found.
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There are some case studies of ‘wild’ children, these are children who have
been brought up without human contact
Talk briefly about one of them for example
The wild boy of Aveyron
 In 1800, a boy of about 12 years of age was found in a forest in the
South of France. He did not appear to have any parents and was taken
to an orphanage. He was then put into the care of a doctor who
wanted to study his progress.
 When he was first found he could not speak. He did make strange
noises and would howl in the dark. He hated wearing clothes, was not
toilet trained and he appeared not to feel cold or heat. He was
observed to go out and play in the snow with no clothes and apparently
he did not suffer from this – in fact, he seemed to enjoy it.
 He lived until he was about forty years old. During this time he did
learn some words. He also learned to use the toilet, wear clothes and
dress himself. However, he never developed fully.
Conclusion
Even though genetics has a part to play in shaping human behaviour there is
also a lot of evidence that human behaviour is shaped by socialisation?
3. People living in a society may have a very different set of customs and
beliefs to those living in other societies. Such cultural differences illustrate
how societies develop their own unique cultures.
(a)
What is meant by the term cultural differences?
[2]
The ways in terms of customs, norms, values etc. differ from society to
society.
(b)
Describe two features of a society’s culture.
[4]
 Culture is the whole of the knowledge ideas and habits of a society that
are transmitted from one generation to the next.
 Culture is not static and is always changing
 Culture is more important than instinct
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Likely answers may focus on:
Language – there is usually a common language that everyone speaks
within a culture even though there may be subcultures within the culture that
speak another language also.
Customs – certain customs are associated with certain cultures. For example
even though most people in Britain would eat beef or pork they would never
eat snake or dog which is considered good in some cultures.
Values – provide general guidelines for how to behave within a culture.
Values vary from culture to culture. For example ‘privacy’ and ‘value for
human life are highly valued by most people in Britain.
art and literature – each culture may have art and literature that is specific
to that culture and reflects the values and beliefs of that culture
(c)
Explain how the elderly are likely to be treated differently in modern
industrial society compared to more traditional societies.
[6]
Likely answers will focus on:
Industrial society
 Old people have a relatively low status – there are common
stereotypes of old people as being ‘useless’ or ‘old fools’ who have nothing
to contribute to society
 Loneliness- old people are often lonely as many of them live on their
own far away from their families
 Many have low incomes – even though many old people have a
government pension they still live below the poverty line and find it hard
to manage
 provision of social services – old people can get extra help from the
government if they can’t manage but many don’t ask
Traditional societies
 Old people are treated with respect – they will be asked their
opinions because their wisdom and experience is valued
 Feeling of community there is more of a community spirit as people
have lived in the same neighbourhood all their lives
 Stronger familial links – old people will usually live with their families
and have strong support networks
 No provision of social services – the elderly are unlikely to have a
pension and there may be less state support so they will have to depend
on their families for financial support
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(d)
To what extent do people in the same culture share the same
values?
[8]
 Culture is the knowledge, ideas and habits of a society that are
transmitted from one generation to the next.
 Culture is not static and is always changing
People from the same culture have certain things in common
Language – there is usually a common language that everyone speaks
within a culture even though there may be subcultures within the culture that
speak another language also.
Customs – certain customs are associated with certain cultures. For example
even though most people in Britain would eat beef or pork they would never
eat snake or dog which is considered good in some cultures.
art and literature – each culture may have art and literature that is specific
to that culture and reflects the values and beliefs of that culture
People from the same culture often share the same values. These provide
general guidelines for how to behave within a culture. Values vary from
culture to culture. For example ‘privacy’ and ‘value for human life are highly
valued by most people in Britain.
Cultural Values
 A culture's values are its ideas about what is good, right, fair, and just.
 Conflict theory focuses on how values differ between groups within a
culture, while functionalism focuses on the shared values within a
culture, Consensus
 For example, American sociologist Robert K. Merton suggested that
the most important values in American society are wealth, success,
power, and prestige, but that everyone does not have an equal
opportunity to attain these values.
 Functional sociologist Talcott Parsons noted that Americans share the
common value of the “American work ethic,” which encourages hard
work.
 Other sociologists have proposed a common core of American values,
including accomplishment, material success, problem-solving, reliance
on science and technology, democracy, patriotism, charity, freedom,
equality and justice, individualism, responsibility, and accountability.
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Conflicting Values
 A culture, though, may have conflicting values.
 For instance, the value of material success may conflict with the value
of charity.
 Or the value of equality may conflict with the value of individualism.
 Such contradictions may exist due to an inconsistency between people's
actions and their professed values, which explains why sociologists
must carefully distinguish between what people do and what they say.
 Real culture refers to the values and norms that a society actually
follows, while ideal culture refers to the values and norms that a
society professes to believe.
Subcultures
 Even if there is an overall shared culture, within it there are clearly
distinguishable sets of values and behaviour that form a subculture
 Within these subcultures clear variations exist in the values that people
hold and the pattern of behaviour that they engage in
 Within any cultures there are subcultures they are linked to ethnic
social class and age divisions in society
 People in these subcultures may be socialised differently and learn
different values according to social class; ethnic group; age group;
Reasons they might vary:
 the influence of social class – the values of the working class are
different from those of the middle class although the extent of those
differences is a matter of debate. Research has suggested that working
class children are brought up in a more rigid way by their parents and
there is less stress on academic success. Working class children do not
receive as much help with reading and writing as middle class children.
All this has consequences for their future success at school and their
future employment
 the influence of ethnicity – People from different ethnic groups may
bring up their children to have specific values that may differ from the
‘mainstream values’ of British society. For example the children of
Indian immigrants to Britain will most likely follow the Hindu or Muslim
religions. They may have different views about the role of family and
the correct behaviour for females especially in terms of marriage which
may be arranged.
 the influence of age – a typical example would be a youth
subculture, these subcultures emerge for each generation. In each
generation there is a variety of styles of dress; types of music; special
language and attitudes that distinguish youth from older people and
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from children. These values make youth distinct or different from the
rest of society but rarely do they represent a complete rejection of the
overall culture
Within any culture there is cultural diversity, or the presence of multiple
cultures and cultural differences within a society. In reality, many different
cultural groups make up a society.
Cultural Diversity
Many people mistakenly use such phrases as “British culture,” “white
culture,” or “Western culture,” as if such large, common, and homogenous
cultures exists in Britain today. These people fail to acknowledge the
presence of cultural diversity, or the presence of multiple cultures and
cultural differences within a society. In reality, many different cultural groups
comprise the United Kingdom.
Therefore people in a culture often share some of the same cultural
values. They can also retain their own group or ethnic values which
doesn’t always clash with the main culture but can coexist in
increasing multicultural societies
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Section C: Social Stratification
4. A person’s social class is influenced by a number of factors. One of the
most important influences is occupation.
(a)
What is meant by the term of social class?
[2]
An open system, where broad groups of people share similar economic
positions, such as, occupation and wealth.
(b)
Describe two ways a middle class background may affect a person’s
work opportunities.
[4]
Likely answers may focus on:
 Parental expectations – middle-class parents have high
expectations for their children to do well in school and go into a
good career
 education – middle-class children stay in school longer and are
more likely to continue into higher education (university) which in
turn leads to better careers
 wealth - middle-class parents are able to provide sufficient funds
for children to stay on in education or training
 contacts – middle-class parents often have contacts in different
profession which may help their children when finding
employment or with promotion.
(c)
Explain why middle class occupations, such as doctors and lawyers
tend to earn more than working class occupations in modern
industrial societies.
[6]
Reasons:
 higher levels of training – the position of professional like lawyers is
based on the possession of educational qualifications and a long period
of training. These higher professional qualifications mean that they
enjoy high rewards, status and job security.
 Longer periods of training leading to a relatively short supply
of such professionals – so they can demand high salaries as they are
the ones who are calling the shots
 the ability of professional organisations to organise effectively
– professionals have strong occupational associations that protect and
actively pursue their interests in terms of improving terms and
conditions e.g. ‘The Law Society’ and ‘The British Medical Association’
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(d)
To what extent does social class background still influence an
individual’s opportunities in life?
[8]
Many areas of our lives are directly linked to class.
Among the ‘life chances’ affected by class are:










How long people live (life expectancy)
How healthy people are
How much and what they eat
The kind of housing they live in
The level of education they reach and the qualifications they achieve
How likely they are to be employed or to be made redundant
Their chances of being killed or injured at work
The money they can spend on both necessities and luxuries
How often they can take a holiday and what kind of holiday
Their chances of being the victim of crime
The power of the elite within society is based upon:
 Income
 Wealth
 A network of social connections – sometimes known as the ‘old boys
network’
The least powerful within society still have few opportunities to
escape from poverty
Life chances are determined by factors such as:
 Social class
 Gender
 Schooling
 Ethnicity, etc
Differences in life chances still exist
Social class background still influences an individual’s opportunities in life?
In Education
For example middle class children will do better in school than working
class children because:
 education – parents put a high value on education and expect
their children to work hard and do well so that they can go on to
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university and get good qualifications
 wealth – parents are able to provide sufficient funds for their
children to be able to continue with education or training;
 Parental expectations - parents have high expectation for their
children especially in terms of career choices
 middle class contacts – the people their parents know may
help them to provide contacts for employment or help them with
promotion.
In Work
For example: the middle class will also do better in employment than the
working class because:
 generally people from middle class backgrounds are more likely to be in
professional and managerial positions
 They are more likely to be in senior management positions and
professions (like law)
 They are more likely to be promoted
 They have higher incomes
 They have better job security and benefits
In Health
For example: the middle class will also do better than the working
class health-wise
 A professional can expect to live on average seven years longer than an
unskilled working man
 They visit the doctor more often and tend to have more regular
checkups
 They have a better diet and take more exercise so have less serious
illness than working class people
 They are more likely to go to the doctor for regular checkups
So
 Even though all industrial societies have seen an increase in equality
and affluence since the end of the Second World War.
 Even though some of the working class are becoming more like the
middle class through embourgeoisement
 There are still people who don’t do well and have not benefited from
the new affluence in society
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5. Despite the existence of equal rights legislation (laws) in modern industrial
societies, many ethnic minorities still experience discrimination in areas such
as employment and housing.
(a)
What is meant by the term discrimination?
[2]
Discrimination refers to the ways a racial group may be treated unfairly by
the rest of society in areas such as: education; work, equality before the law
etc.
(b)
Describe two types of discrimination ethnic minorities may
experience at work.
[4]
Likely answers may focus on:
 difficulty in entering into certain professions – access to
certain professions is limited because of discrimination or failure
to get onto the university course. There are shortages of black
doctors and lawyers
 lack of promotion prospects - ethnic minorities often face a
glass ceiling at work due to discrimination on racial grounds
which can be overt (obvious) or more likely covert (in other words
hidden)
 poorer pay – ethnic minorities often work in low income jobs
wth less job security and prospects for promotion
 discrimination in selection process for available jobs –
employers often deny job interviews on the ground of race.
Know the meaning of these terms:
Prejudice’
To pre-judge people before you know the facts. Prejudice refers to opinions
and attitudes held by members of one group towards another. These views
are often based on opinion rather than evidence.
‘Discrimination’
To treat people differently, usually badly, because they are different in some
way – for example a different skin colour or from a different ethnic group.
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(c)
Explain why ethnic minorities may have experienced less
discrimination in modern industrial societies in recent years.
[6]
Likely answers may focus on:
 Changes to the law– changes in the law have helped to combat
discrimination and helped ethnic minorities get more equality. The Race
Relations Act 1976 makes discrimination against the law.
 Changing attitudes of employers towards racism. Changing attitudes
about negative racial stereotypes have made employers more likely to
want to employ ethnic minorities than before. Changing perceptions of the
abilities of the ethnic minorities has also helped with employment
prospects.
 Skill shortages – this has ensured that ethnic minorities are encouraged
to undertake certain jobs to make up for these shortfalls in the labour
market. They are now, after training, able to get into areas like ICT where
there are shortages
(d)
To what extent do ethnic minorities remain disadvantaged
throughout their lives?
[8]
Ethnic minorities are disadvantaged in all areas of life:
Education
 ethnic groups differ greatly in income, housing standards and level of job
- these inequalities are the often the cause of differences in educational
attainment
 there is evidence that those ethnic groups which do very badly are those
with the highest level of deprivation
 the attitudes of teachers is important in motivating students – often
teachers have lower expectations of certain ethnic groups
 there is discrimination in the process of streaming and options choices
for ethnic minorities
 the educational success of the child was closely related to the
educational standards of the parents
 students born in Britain had parents not fluent in English so may not
have shared cultural values
health
 ethnic minorities have a shorter life expectancy caused by social and
economic conditions
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 ethnic minorities are less likely to use health services especially older
people possibly because they don’t speak English
Work
 generally people from ethnic minorities are less likely to be in
professional and managerial positions and more often in lower paid and
routine work.
 They are all under represented in the professions (like law) and senior
management positions
 They are less likely to be promoted
 They are more likely to do shift work and part-time work
 They have higher unemployment rates than the average
 They have lower incomes than the average
Criminal Justice System
 Ethnic minorities are more likely to be attacked and harassed.
 There is also evidence that not only are they victims of violence from the
general public but they are also not treated equally by the criminal
justice system.
 Young black males are more likely to be stopped and arrested by the
police
 Sociologists have uncovered what they call a ‘canteen culture’ among
some police in which racist language and beliefs are freely expressed.
 An official inquiry in 1999 was held into the racist murder of black youth
Stephen Lawrence.
 The inquiry accused the Metropolitan Police (the London Police force) of
Institutional Racism meaning that racist ideas and attitudes exist
throughout the police force and influence the way the police operate
So some ethnic minorities remain disadvantaged throughout their
lives and seem to be trapped in a cycle of poverty and deprivation.
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