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What is English?
History of the English Language
A short history of the origins and development of English
from: http://www.englishclub.com/english-language-history.htm
The history of the English language really started with the arrival of three Germanic tribes who invaded Britain
during the 5th century AD. These tribes, the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes, crossed the North Sea from what
today is Denmark and northern Germany. At that time the inhabitants of Britain spoke a Celtic language. But
most of the Celtic speakers were pushed west and north by the invaders - mainly into what is now Wales,
Scotland and Ireland. The Angles came from Englaland and their language was called Englisc - from which the
words England and English are derived.
Old English (450-1100 AD)
Germanic invaders entered Britain on the east and south coasts in the 5th century.
The invading Germanic tribes spoke similar languages, which in Britain developed into what we now call Old
English. Old English did not sound or look like English today. Native English speakers now would have great
difficulty understanding Old English. Nevertheless, about half of the most commonly used words in Modern
English have Old English roots. The words be, strong and water, for example, derive from Old English. Old
English was spoken until around 1100.
Middle English (1100-1500)
In 1066 William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy (part of modern France), invaded and conquered
England. The new conquerors (called the Normans) brought with them a kind of French, which became the
language of the Royal Court, and the ruling and business classes. For a period there was a kind of linguistic
class division, where the lower classes spoke English and the upper classes spoke French. In the 14th century
English became dominant in Britain again, but with many French words added. This language is called Middle
English. It was the language of the great poet Chaucer (c1340-1400), but it would still be difficult for native
English speakers to understand today.
Modern English
Early Modern English (1500-1800)
Towards the end of Middle English, a sudden and distinct change in pronunciation (the Great Vowel Shift)
started, with vowels being pronounced shorter and shorter. From the 16th century the British had contact with
many peoples from around the world. This, and the Renaissance of Classical learning, meant that many new
words and phrases entered the language. The invention of printing also meant that there was now a common
language in print. Books became cheaper and more people learned to read. Printing also brought standardization
to English. Spelling and grammar became fixed, and the dialect of London, where most publishing houses were,
became the standard. In 1604 the first English dictionary was published.
Late Modern English (1800-Present)
The main difference between Early Modern English and Late Modern English is vocabulary. Late Modern
English has many more words, arising from two principal factors: firstly, the Industrial Revolution and
technology created a need for new words; secondly, the British Empire at its height covered one quarter of the
earth's surface, and the English language adopted foreign words from many countries.
Varieties of English
From around 1600, the English colonization of North America resulted in the creation of a distinct American
variety of English. Some English pronunciations and words "froze" when they reached America. In some ways,
American English is more like the English of Shakespeare than modern British English is. Some expressions
that the British call "Americanisms" are in fact original British expressions that were preserved in the colonies
while lost for a time in Britain (for example trash for rubbish, loan as a verb instead of lend, and fall for autumn;
another example, frame-up, was re-imported into Britain through Hollywood gangster movies). Spanish also
had an influence on American English (and subsequently British English), with words like canyon, ranch,
stampede and vigilante being examples of Spanish words that entered English through the settlement of the
American West. French words (through Louisiana) and West African words (through the slave trade) also
influenced American English (and so, to an extent, British English).
Today
Today, American English is particularly influential, due to the USA's dominance of cinema, television, popular
music, trade and technology (including the Internet). But there are many other varieties of English around the
world, including for example Australian English, New Zealand English, Canadian English, South African
English, Indian English and Caribbean English.
The Germanic Family of Languages
English is a member of the Germanic family of languages.
Germanic is a branch of the Indo-European language family.
A Brief Chronology of English
BCE 55 Roman invasion of Britain by Julius Caesar. Local inhabitants speak Celtish. Beginning of Roman rule
of Britain.
ca. 450CE Roman withdrawal from Britain complete. Invasion and settlement of Britain by Germanic invaders
(Viking Tribes: Angles, Saxons, Jutes) begins.
450-480 Old English begins. Earliest known Old English inscriptions.
750 Second wave of Viking Invasions, aka Germanic invaders. The most famous Old English work of literature
was composed, Beowulf, most likely by an illiterate poet who sang it.
ca. 1000 Beowulf was probably written down for the first time.
1066 William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy (aka France), invades and conquers England.
ca.1150 Middle English begins: Notable influence of French on English appears.
1348 English replaces Latin as the language of instruction in most schools.
1362 English replaces French as the language of law. English is used in Parliament for the first time.
ca. 1388 Chaucer starts writing The Canterbury Tales, the most famous Middle English work of literature.
ca. 1400 The Great Vowel Shift begins.
ca. 1450 The first printing press invented.
1476 Early Modern English begins: William Caxton establishes the first English printing press.
1564 Shakespeare is born.
1604 Modern English begins. Table Alphabeticall, the first English dictionary, is published.
1607 The first permanent English settlement in the New World (Jamestown) is established.
1616 Shakespeare dies.
1623 Shakespeare's First Folio is published.
1702 The first daily English-language newspaper, The Daily Courant, is published in London.
1755 Samuel Johnson publishes his English dictionary.
1776 Thomas Jefferson writes the American Declaration of Independence.
1782 Britain abandons its American colonies.
1828 Late Modern English begins. Webster publishes his American English dictionary.
1922 The British Broadcasting Corporation is founded.
1928 The Oxford English Dictionary is published.
I.
Where did English come from? The Adventure of English
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wGYiM_ZnjAc
Versions of “The Lord’s Prayer”
in Old English, Middle English, Modern English, and languages closely related to English
Atta unsar thu in himinam
weihnai namo thein
quimai thiudinassus thein
wairthai wilja theins
swe in himina jah aria airthai hlaif unsarana
thana sinteinan gif uns himma daga jah aflet uns
thatai skulans sijaima swaswe jah weis afletam
thaim skulam unsaraim jah ni briggais uns in
frauistubnjai ak lausai uns of thamma ubilin
unte theina ist thiudangardi jan mahts jah wulthus in aiwins
amen.
(Gothic ca. 350)
. . .g fæder, þu þe on heofonum eardast,
geweorðad wuldres dreame. Sy þinum weorcum
halgad
noma niþþa bearnum;
þu eart nergend wera. Cyme þin rice wide, ond þin
rædfæst willa
aræred under rodores hrofe, eac þon on rumre
foldan.
Syle us to dæge domfæstne blæd,
hlaf userne, helpend wera, þone singalan, soðfæst
meotod.
Ne læt usic costunga cnyssan to swiðe,
ac þu us freodom gief, folca waldend,
from yfla gehwam, a to widan feore.
(Old
English, ca. 800-1000)
Fæder ure þu þe eart on heofonum;
Si þin nama gehalgod
to becume þin rice
gewurþe ðin willa
on eorðan swa swa on heofonum.
urne gedæghwamlican hlaf syle us todæg
and forgyf us ure gyltas
swa swa we forgyfað urum gyltendum
and ne gelæd þu us on costnunge
ac alys us of yfele soþlice.
(Late Old
th
English 11 century)
Oure fadir that are in heuenes
halwid be thi name
thy kyngdom cumme
to be thi wille don
as in heuen and in earthe
gif to us this day oure breed ouer other substance
and forgeue to us oure dettis as we forgeue to oure
dettours
and leede us nat in to temptacioun
but delyuere us fro yeul. Amen
(Middle English, 1389)
Our father which art in heauen,
hallowed be thy name.
Thy kingdome come.
Thy will be done,
in earth, as it is in heauen.
Giue vs this day our daily bread.
And forgiue vs our debts, as we forgiue our debters.
And lead vs not into temptation,
but deliuer vs from euill:
For thine is the kingdome, and the power, and the
glory, for euer, Amen.
(Early Modern English, King
James Bible, 1611)
Our Father, who art in heaven,
Hallowed be thy Name.
Thy kingdom come.
Thy will be done,
On earth as it is in heaven.
Give us this day our daily bread.
And forgive us our trespasses,
As we forgive those who trespass against us.
And lead us not into temptation,
But deliver us from evil.
For thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the
glory, for ever and ever. Amen.
(Modern English, 20th century traditional)
Vater unser im Himmel,
Geheiligt werde dein Name.
Dein Reich komme.
Dein Wille geschehe,
wie im Himmel so auf Erden.
Unser tägliches Brot gib uns heute.
Und vergib uns unsere Schuld,
wie auch wir vergeben unsern Schuldigern.
Und führe uns nicht in Versuchung,
sondern erlöse uns von dem Bösen.
Denn Dein ist das Reich und die Kraft und die
Herrlichkeit in Ewigkeit. Amen.
(20th century German)
Notre Père qui es aux cieux
Que ton nom soit sanctifié
Que ton règne vienne
Que ta volonté soit faite
Sur la terre comme aux ciel.
Donne-nous aujourd'hui notre pain de ce jour.
Pardonnes-nous nos offenses,
Comme nous pardonnons aussi
A ceux qui nous ont offensés.
Et ne nous soumets pas à la tentation,
Mais délivre-nous du Mal.
Car c'est à toi qu'appartiennent la règne, la
puissance et la gloire,
Pour les siècles des siècles.
Amen.
(20th century French)
Vor Fader, du som er i Himlene!
Helliget vorde dit navn;
komme dit rige;
ske din vilje
på jorden, som den sker i Himmelen;
giv os i dag vort daglige brød;
og forlad os vor skyld,
som også vi forlader vore skyldnere;
og led os ikke ind i fristelse;
men fri os fra det onde;
thi dit er Riget og magten og æren i evighed! Amen
(20th century Danish)
Questions:
1. How did Old English change to become Middle English?
2. How did Middle English change to become Modern English?
3. When did orthography become fixed? How can you tell?
4. How did fixed orthography change the English language?
5. What language is English closest to now?
6. Why would a religious text like “The Lord’s Prayer” be the only piece of writing to survive all periods
of the English language?
English language relatives: Cognates
Sanskrit
aham
ma
asti
matar
bhratar
dasam
Latin
ego
me
est
mater
frater
decem
Anglo-Saxon
ic
me
is
modor
brothor
tien
unus
duo
tres
venire
cantare
habere
German
ich
mich
ist
mutter
bruder
zehn
Danish
jeg
mig
er
mor (moder)
bror (broder)
ti
French
je
mois/me
suis
mere
frere
dix
Spanish
yo
me
es
madre
hermano
diez
eins
zwei
drei
kommen
singen
haben
en
to
tre
komme
synge
have
un
deux
trois
venir
chanter
avoir
uno
dos
tres
venir
cantar
haber
Grimm's law: two consonant shifts occurred, one several thousand years ago, another about 1500 years ago, These shifts
show a correlation between diverse languages. For example, a Latin or Greek "f" corresponds to a Germanic "b". So the
Latin root "flor-" is related to the English word "blossom". We might symbolize this law as follows:
1. f>b, b>p, p>f (for ex. flor-blossom, labium-lip, poly-flow)
2. th>d, d>t, t>th
3. h>g, g>k, k>h
Great Vowel Shift: The main difference between Chaucer’s language and our own is in the pronunciation of the “long”
vowels. The consonants remain generally the same, though Chaucer rolled his r’s, sometimes dropped his “h”s and
pronounced both elements of consonant combinations, such as “kn,” that were later simplified. And the short vowels are
very similar in Middle and Modern English. But the “long” vowels are regularly and strikingly different. This is due to
what is called The Great Vowel Shift.
Between the twelfth and eighteenth centuries (but mainly in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries) the sounds of the
long stressed vowels in English changed their places of articulation (i.e.,where and how the sounds are made).
Chaucer’s English
heeth, breeth
ye, melodye
mayde, sayde
post, cost
hous, plenteous
cam, ram
goot, hoot
two, so
loude, koude
wyn, Latyn
Modern English
heath (vs. breath)
eye (vs. melody)
maid (vs. said)
post (vs. cost)
house (vs. plenteous)
came (vs. ram)
goat (vs. hot)
two (vs. so)
loud (vs. could)
wine (vs. Latin)
Vowel Shift
ee-e
ie-ee
e-ae
o-aw
ow-uh
ae-a
oe-aw
oo-oe
ow-ou
ie-i