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SUBJECT: SAD (BCA – 2)
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Multiple-choice questions:
1. The major goal of requirement determination phase of information system
development is
a. determine whether information is needed by an organization
b. determine what information is needed by an organization
c. determine how information needed by an organization can be provided
d. determine when information is to be given
Answer: b
2. Information requirements of an organization can be determined by
a. interviewing managers and users and arriving at the requirements based on
consensus
b. finding out what similar organizations do
c. telling organization what they need based on your experience
d. sending a questionnaire to all employees of the organization
Answer: a
3. Requirement specification is carried out
a. after requirements are determined
b. before requirements are determined
c. simultaneously with requirements determination
d. independent of requirements determination
Answer: a
4. A feasibility study is carried out
a. after final requirements specifications are drawn up
b. during the period when requirements specifications are drawn up
c. before the final requirements specifications are drawn up
d. at any time
Answer: c
5. The main objective of feasibility study is
a. to assess whether it is possible to meet the requirements specifications
b. to assess if it is possible to meet the requirements specified subject to
constraints of budget, human resource and hardware
c. to assist the management in implementing the desired system
d. to remove bottlenecks in implementing the desired system
Answer: b
6. System test plan is specified
a. when the final specifications are drawn up
b. during feasibility study
c. during the requirements specifications stage
d. during system study stage
Answer: a
7. The primary objective of system design is to
a. design the programs, databases and test plan
b. design only user interfaces
c. implement the system
d. find out how the system will perform
Answer: a
8. System evaluation is carried out
a. after the system has been operational for a reasonable time
b. during system implementation
c. whenever managers of user organization want it
d. whenever operational staff want it
Answer: a
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9. The most important attribute of a systems analyst is
a. excellent programming skills
b. very good hardware designing skills
c. very good technical management skills
d. very good writing skills
Answer: c
10. A computer-based information system
a. may require some tasks to be done manually
b. should not have any manual tasks
c. is always fully automated
d. may use only computers
Answer: a
11. By technical feasibility of a solution we mean that
a. technology is available to implement it
b. persons are available to implement it
c. persons have technical ability to implement it
d. funds are available to implement it
Answer: a
12. By operational feasibility we mean
a. the system can be operated nicely
b. the system is unusable by operators
c. the system can be adapted by an organization without major disruptions
d. the system can be implemented
Answer: c
13. By economic feasibility of a system we mean that
a. it is economical to operate
b. it is expensive to operate
c. it will be cost-effective if implemented
d. finances are available to implement the system and it will be cost-effective
Answer: d
14. A cost-benefit analysis is performed to assess
a. economic feasibility
b. operational feasibility
c. technical feasibility
d. all of the above
Answer: d
15. A data dictionary has consolidated list of data contained in
(i) dataflows
(ii) data stores
(iii) data outputs
(iv) processes
a. (i) and (iii)
b. (i) and (ii)
c. (ii) and (iv)
d. (i) and (iv)
Answer: b
16. By metadata we mean
a. very large data
b. data about data
c. data dictionary
d. meaningful data
Answer: b
17. It is necessary to carefully design data input to a computer based system
because
a. it is good to be careful
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b. the volume of data handled is large
c. the volume of data handled is small
d. data entry operators are not good
Answer: b
18. In on-line data entry it is possible to
a. Give immediate feedback if incorrect data is entered
b. Eliminate all errors
c. Save data entry operators time
d. Eliminate forms
Answer: a
19. Data inputs which require coding are
a. fields which specify prices
b. key fields
c. name fields such as product name
d. fields which are of variable length
Answer: b
20. System Study involves
a: study of an existing system
b: documenting the existing system.
c: identifying current deficiencies and establishing new goals
d: All of the above
Answer: d
21. The primary tool used in structured design is a:
a: structured chart
b: data-flow diagram
c: program flowchart
d: None of the above
Answer: a
22. In a _____ one module of the new information system is activated at a time.
a: System Development Life Cycle
b: CASE tool
c: Phased Conversion
d: None of the above
Answer: c
23. The approach used in top-down analysis and design is
a: to identify the top level functions by combining many smaller components into a single entity
b: to prepare flow charts after programming has been completed
c: to identify a top level function an d then create a hierarchy of lower-level modules and components.
d: All of the above
Answer: c
24. Documentation is prepared
a: at every stage
b: at system design
c: at system analysis
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d: at system development
Answer: a
25. Which of the following is not true of the conversion phase of the development life cycle?
a: the user and systems personnel must work closely together.
b: steps must be taken to phase out the old system
c: documentation should be emphasized
d: the non machine components of the system should be considered
Answer: c
26. In phase 1 of the system development life cycle, which of the following aspects are usually analyzed?
a: outputs
b: input
c: controls
d: All of the above
Answer: d
27. To run the old system and the new system at the same time for a specified period, the system
implementation approach used is
a: pilot
b: phased
c: parallel
d: direct
Answer: c
28: A decision tree uses
a: pictorial depiction of alternate conditions
b: nodes and branches
c: consequences of various depicted alternates
d: All of the above
Answer: d
29: A decision table facilitates conditions to be related to
a: actions
b: programs
c: tables
d: operation
Answer: a
30: A branch office, location or other data processing centers, where a newly developed system is used under
normal operating conditions for several months, to test it, is called
a: beta test data
b: alpha test data
c: string test data
d: system test data
Answer: a
31.Which are the tools not used for System Analysis
a: System - test data
b: Decision table
c: Data Flow Diagram
d: Flowcharts
Answer: a
32. Acceptance testing is
a: running the system in line with the requirements of the actual user
b: making sure that the new programs do in fact process certain transactions according to Specifications
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c: is checking the logic of one or more programs in the candidate systems
d: testing changes made in an existing or a new program
Answer: a
33. A Decision Table has _____ (number) quadrants:
a: Four
b: Two
c: One
d: Eight
Answer : a
34: The symbol used to represent a process in a DFD:
a: Circle
b: Arrow
c: Square
d: Open Rectangle
Answer: a
35: The symbol used to represent a data-store in a DFD:
a: Circle
b: Arrow
c: Square
d: Open Rectangle
Answer: d
36. When logic is represented using if-then-else statements, the structured analysis tool used is:
a: Algorithm
b: Structured English
c: Logical English
d: Decision Table
Answer: b
37. Data structures in motion are called:
a: Data-flows
b: Data-in-motion
c: Data-in-action
d: None of the above
Answer: a
38: When the modules in a system have minimum dependence on each other, the process is known as:
a: Cohesion
b: De-coupling
c: Coupling
d: Independence
Answer: b
39: When the statements in a module, relate to only a single task:
a: Cohesion
b: De-coupling
c: Coupling
d: Independence
Answer: a
40. A group of data-elements handled as a single unit:
a: Data-structure
b: Structure
c: Data-repository
d: Data-store
Answer: a
41. A self-monitoring system is called:
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a: Dynamic system
b: Cybernetic system
c: Controlling system
d: Computer based system
Answer: b
42: The elements of a dynamic system:
a: Input, process, output
b: Input, output, feedback
c: Input, control, output
d: Input and output
Answer: a
43: In a system in which input, process and output are known with certainty:
a: Formal system
b: Physical system
c: Deterministic system
d: Purposive system
Answer: c
44. The study which helps in deciding whether the system is workable or not:
a: Analytical study
b: Design study
c: Feasibility study
d: None of the above
Answer: c
45: The testing in which each program is tested with other programs to see if they interact well:
a: Program testing
b: System testing
c: Interoperability testing
d: String testing
Answer: d
46: The tool used in structured analysis which is a matrix containing rows and columns:
a: Structured English
b: Decision Table
c: Decision Tree
d: Data Flow Diagram
Answer: b
47: If a system neither accepts nor provides input or output to external environment, it is called:
a: closed system
b: physical system
c: formal system
d: none of the above
Answer: a
48: When smaller systems make-up a large system, the large system is called:
a: integrated system
b: holistic system
c: super system
d: consolidated system
Answer: c
49: The feasibility which analyzes whether a project can be completed within a give time-frame:
a: schedule feasibility
b: periodic feasibility
c: productive feasibility
d: timing feasibility
Answer: a
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50: The activity in system requirement determination involving the study if current system using fact-finding
techniques:
a: requirement investigation
b: requirement specification
c: requirement anticipation
d: none of the above
Answer: a
51: The technique that helps collect information related to a large system by investigating smaller and
randomly selected items:
a: sampling
b: choosing
c: selecting
d: identifying
Answer: a
52: The qualitative documents which provide details regarding daily activities of the organization:
a: memos
b: handbooks
c: notes
d: manuals
Answer: a
53: When the on-site observation is held without the knowledge of the respondent:
a: obtrusive
b: unobtrusive
c: contrived
d: structured
Answer: b
54:The visiting of an auditor in the organization will come under which observation method:
a: obtrusive
b: unobtrusive
c: contrived
d: structured
Answer: a
55: When the observation takes place in a set-up by the observer:
a: obtrusive
b: unobtrusive
c: contrived
d: structured
Answer: c
56: The way of conducting an interview in which the interviewer follows a “thumb rule” approach:
a: formal
b: legalistic
c: political
d: informal
Answer: b
57: The “play it by ear” approach to an interview is also called:
a: formal
b: legalistic
c: political
d: informal
Answer: d
58: The FLIP approaches to interviewing were given by:
a: F.W. Taylor
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b: Jerry and Ardra Fitzgerald
c: Larry Constantine
d: Mintzberg
Answer: b
59: The question in which the respondent is given specific responses to choose from:
a: responsive
b: open-ended
c: closed
d: none of the above
Answer: c
60: When owners, designers and builders work together with system analyst to together define and design the
system:
a: Group Application Development
b: Group System Development
c: Joint Application Development
d: Joint activity
Answer: c
61: An implementation independent DFD:
a: Logical
b: Physical
c: Context
d: none of the above
Answer: a
62: A DFD which explains the whole system with a single process:
a: Logical
b: Physical
c: Context
d: level-one
Answer: c
63: The structured analysis tool which uses English language but does not conform to any one programming
language:
a: Structured English
b: Pseudocode
c: Flow-chart
d: none of the above
Answer: b
64. DFDs were first developed by:
a: F.W. Taylor
b: Jerry and Ardra Fitzgerald
c: Larry Constantine
d: Mintzberg
Answer: c
65: Environment is_______ of a system:
a: part
b: category
c: element
d: property
Answer: c
66: A DFD is also known as:
a: bubble chart
b: system analysis chart
c: process chart
d: none of the above
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Answer: a
67: A field which can not be divided further:
a: atom
b: fundamental
c: basic
d: data element
Answer: d
68: A decision table consists of two parts called:
a: stub and entry
b: condition and entry
c: action and stub
d: action and entry
Answer: a
69: When lower-level modules are grouped together to form higher level modules, the system design strategy
is called:
a: top-up strategy
b: top-down strategy
c: bottom-up strategy
d: bottom-down strategy
Answer: c
70:Factors affecting software complexity:
a: Number of modules
b: Cohesion and coupling between modules
c: cost of constructing each modules
d: all of the above
Answer: b
71: HIPO is the acronym for:
a: Hierarchy plus Input-Process-Output
b: Hypothetical Input-Process-Output
c: Hierarchy Input Program Output
d: none of the above
Answer: a
72: The design methodology which uses easy-to-draw vector like symbols between processes:
a: HIPO chart
b: IPO chart
c: structured walkthrough
d: pseudocode
Answer: a
73: An activity of all phases of a structured project developed with the purpose of anticipating problems in
system design:
a: HIPO chart
b: IPO chart
c: structured walkthrough
d: pseudocode
Answer: c
74: When two different entities are referred by a single name:
a: semantic homonyms
b: semantic synonyms
c: semantic antonyms
d: none of the above
Answer: a
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75: _____ comprises the documentary proofs of several control methods that a transaction is put through at
the time of processing:
a: audit trail
b: monitoring
c: processing
d: none of the above
Answer: a
76: ________ involves the process of assessing and enhancing the internal control over time:
a: audit trail
b: monitoring
c: processing
d: none of the above
Answer: b
77: The technique used in database design which specifies the relationship between different entities:
a: IPO
b: HIPO
c: E-R Model
d: DFD
Answer: c
78: The type of validation which traces the flow of processes and evaluates them:
a: level to level validation
b: data to data validation
c: process to process validation
d: none of the above
Answer: c
79: Documentation that fully describes each and every program within the information system is called:
a: user documentation
b: program documentation
c: system documentation
d: software documentation
Answer: c
80: The process of converting user-originated inputs to computer-based format:
a: output design
b: input-design
c: database design
d: process design
Answer: b
81: A three-column chart which shows the input and output requirements and the processing needed to
provide the output:
a: IPO
b: HIPO
c: Decision table
d: none of the above
Answer: a
82: The identification and recording of source data is called:
a: data validation
b: data entry
c: data capture
d: any of the above
Answer: c
83: The method of data entry in which scanners are used:
a: batch input method
b: online data entry
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c: source data automation
d: none of the above
Answer: c
84: The GUI interface which allows the user to select one or more values from a value-set:
a: radio button control
b: check box control
c: spin box control
d: tab control
Answer: b
85: A single copy form which is prepared manually or by machine:
a: single form
b: simple form
c: NCR form
d: flat form
Answer: d
86: A______ is a document containing some predefined data and provides fields for additional data input by
the user:
a: form
b: memo
c: report
d: chart
Answer: a
87: Form with several copies without carbon-paper:
a: NCR paper
b: fanfold form
c: snap-out form
d: none of the above
Answer: a
88: A type of user-interface which provides a list of options to the user:
a: natural language interface
b: command interface
c: GUI
d: menu interface
Answer: d
89: The level of quality assurance in which the software is checked whether it is obeying the coding rules:
a: code walk-through
b: compilation and linking
c: routine running
d: performance test
Answer: a
90: In an E-R model, ______ is shown by an oval symbol:
a: strong entity
b: relationship
c: attribute
d: weak entity
Answer: c
91: After the system requirements have been determined, the next stage is:
a: designing the system
b: analyzing the needs
c: developing the software for it
d: testing
Answer: b
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92: When a system can be developed given the technical possibility, resource constraints and organizational
desirability, it is said that the system is:
a: Feasible
b: Desirable
c: Constructible
d: Implemental
Answer is: a
93: A formal document which specifies the requirements of the system:
a: SRS
b: Tender
c: Invoice
d: Questionnaire
Answer: a
94: When the statements in a module, relate to only a single task:
a: Cohesion
b: De-coupling
c: Coupling
d: Independence
Answer: a
95: When a system is repaired to enhance its performance, the type of maintenance is called:
a: Corrective
b: Adaptive
c: Perfective
d: Testing
Answer: c
96: When MIS is repaired according to some performance failures, the type of maintenance is called:
a: Corrective
b: Adaptive
c: Perfective
d: Testing
Answer: a
97. A system which is a collection of interdependent ideas:
a: Open Systems
b: Logistic Systems
c: Abstract Systems
d: Probabilistic Systems
Answer: c
98: The person responsible for analysis, designing and implementing systems to fulfill organizational needs:
a: CIO
b: System Analyst
c: Manager-MIS
d: CEO
Answer: b
99: The type of testing in which multiple modules are tested whether they are working together:
a: interoperability testing
b: performance testing
c: integration testing
d: structural testing
Answer: c
100: The type of testing in which the entire software is tested to determine if all reported errors have been
fixed and no new ones have been introduced:
a: regression testing
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b: compatibility testing
c: interoperability testing
d: performance testing
Answer: a
5 – Mark Questions
Q1.
Ans.
Explain various facts gathering techniques.
Various facts gathering techniques are:
1. Review of Literature, Procedures and forms
2. On-Site Observations
3. Interviews
4. Questionnaires
5. Joint Application Development
1. Review of Literature, Procedure and forms: Very few system problems are unique. The increasing
number of software packages suggests that problem solutions become standardized. Therefore, as a first
step, a search of literature through professional references and procedures, manuals, textbooks, company
studies or consultant studies may prove invaluable. The primary drawback of this search is time.
Procedure manuals and forms are useful sources for the analyst. They describe the format and functions
of the present system. Up to date manuals save hours of information-gathering time.
2. On-Site Observations: Another fact-finding tool used in system studies is on-site observation. It is the
process of recognizing and noting people, objects and occurrences to obtain information. The major
objective of on-site observation is to get as close as possible to the real system being studied. As an
observer, the analyst follows a set of rules. While making observations, he is more likely to listen than talk
and to listen with a sympathetic and genuine interest when information is conveyed.
3. Interviews: The interview is a face-to-face interpersonal role situation in which a person called interviewer
asks a person being interviewed questions designed to gather information about a problem area. It can be
used for two main purposes: a) As an exploratory device to identify relations or verify information and b)
To capture information, as it exists.
4. Questionnaire: In contrast to the interview is the questionnaire, which is a term, used for almost any tool
that has questions to which individuals respond. It is usually associated with self-administered tools with
items of the closed or fixed alternative type.
5. Joint Application Development- At times personal interviews are time consuming and subject to error.
Hence, a technique called Joint Application Development(JAD) was introduced by IBM. JAD uses highly
organized and intensive workshops to bring together system owners, users, analysts, designers and
builders to jointly define and design the system. It requires special skills on the part of the analyst. JAD
saves time and cost.
Q2. Differentiate between White box and black box testing.
Ans.
Black Box Testing
White Box Testing
Black Box Testing is a software testing method White Box Testing is a software testing method
in
which
the
internal in which the tester knows the internal
structure/design/implementation of the item structure/design/implementation of the item
being tested is NOT known to the tester
being tested.
Mainly applicable to higher levels of Mainly applicable to lower levels of testing: Unit
testing: acceptance testing and system testing. testing and integration testing.
Programming knowledge is not required in Programming knowledge is required to perform
performing the black box testing.
the white box testing.
Implementation knowledge is not required for Implementation knowledge is required to
performing black box testing.
perform white box testing.
Q3. Explain the primary activities of system maintenance and the types of maintenance.
Ans. Maintenance activities begin where conversion leaves off. Maintenance is handled by the same planning and
control used in a formal system project. Documentation is as much a part of maintenance as it is of system
development. Analysts and programmers spend far more time maintaining programs than they do writing them.
The various activities involved in system maintenance are:
1. Request for systems service
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2. Request system and program documentation
3. Specify required modifications
4. Acquire source program statement printout from library
5. Make required changes to programs and systems
6. Test Changes
7. Submit test results for user approval
8. Return modified documentation to library
9. Notify user of project completion
Maintenance can be classified as:
1. Corrective
2. Adaptive
3. Perfective
1. Corrective: Corrective maintenance means repairing processing or performance failures or making
changes because of previously not-corrected problems or false assumptions.
2. Adaptive: In adaptive maintenance, program functions are changed to enable the information system to
satisfy the information needs of the user. This type of maintenance may become necessary because of
organizational changes which may include:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Change in the organizational procedures,
Change in organizational objectives, goals, policies, etc.
Change in forms,
Change in information needs of managers.
Change in system controls and security needs, etc.
3. Perfective: Perfective maintenance means enhancing the performance or modifying the program to
respond to the user’s additional or changing needs. This type of maintenance undertaken to respond to user’s
additional needs which may be due to the changes within or outside of the organization.
Q4. What is a DFD? What are the rules to construct a DFD?
Ans. Data Flow Diagram is a graphical representation of the logical flow of data. It helps in expressing the system
requirements in a simple and understandable form. It is also known as Bubble Chart.
There are four main symbols used in a DFD
1 Square: it represents source/destination of a system data.
2.Arrow: It identifies data flow.
3. Circle: it represents a process that transforms incoming data flow into outgoing
data flow.
1. Open Rectangle: it represents a data store.
Several rules of thumb are used in drawing DFDs:
1. Processes should be named and numbered for easy reference. Each name should be representative of
the process.
2. The direction of flow is from top to bottom and from left to right. Data traditionally flow from the source to
the destination.
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3. When a process is exploded into lower level details, they are numbered.
4. The names of data stores, sources and destinations are written in capital letters. Process and data flow
names have the first letter of each word capitalized.
For example following DFD shows Order verification and Credit Check
Q5. Write a note on decision tables. Explain with example.
Ans. Decision Tables: A decision table is a table of contingencies for defining a problem and the actions to be taken.
It is a single representation of the relationships between conditions and actions. A decision table consists of two parts:
Stub and entry. The stub part is divided into an upper quadrant called the condition stub and lower quadrant called the
action stub. The entry part is also divided into an upper quadrant, called the condition entry and a lower quadrant
called the action entry. The following rules should be followed in constructing decision tables:
1. A decision should be given a name, shown in the top left of the table
2. The logic of the decision table is independent of the sequence in which the condition rules are written, but
the action takes place in the order in which the events occur.
3. Standardized language must be used consistently.
4. Duplication of terms or meanings should be eliminated, where possible.
For example: A technical support company writes a decision table to diagnose printer problems based upon
symptoms described to them over the phone from their clients.
The following is a balanced decision table (created by Systems Made Simple).
Printer troubleshooter
Rules
Printer does not print
Y Y Y Y N N N N
Conditions A red light is flashing
Y Y N N Y Y N N
Printer is unrecognized
Y N Y N Y N Y N
Check the power cable
Check the printer-computer cable
Actions
X
X
X
Ensure printer software is installed X
X
Check/replace ink
Check for paper jam
X
X X
X
X
X X
X
Q6.Write a note on Cost-Benefit Analysis.
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Ans. Cost Benefit analysis is a procedure that gives a picture of the various costs, benefits and rules associated with a
system. The determination of costs and benefits entails the following steps:
1. Identify the costs and benefits pertaining to a given project
2. Categorize the various costs and benefits for analysis
3. Select a method of evaluation
4. Interpret the result of the analysis.
5. Take action
Classification of Costs and benefits: The next step in cost and benefit determination is to categorize costs
and benefits. The various categories are:
1. Tangible or Intangible Costs and benefits
2. Direct or Indirect Costs and benefits
3. Fixed or Variable costs and benefits
Q7.
Ans.
What are the roles of System Analyst in SDLC?
The various roles of the System analyst in SDLC are:
1. Change Agent: The analyst may be viewed as an agent of change. A candidate system is designed to
introduce change and reorientation in how the user organization handles information or makes decisions.
In the role of change agent, the system analyst may select various styles to introduce change to the user
organization.
2. Investigator and Monitor: In defining a problem, the analyst pieces together the information gathered to
determine why the present system does not work well and what changes will correct the problem.
3. Architect: Analyst works as liaison between the user’s logical design requirements and detailed physical
system design. As architect, the analyst also creates a detailed physical design of candidate systems.
4. Psychologist: Analyst plays the role of a psychologist in the way he reaches people, interprets their
thoughts, assesses their behavior, and draws conclusions fro these interactions.
5. Salesperson: Selling changes can be as crucial as initiating change. Selling the system actually takes
place at each step in the system life cycle.
6. Motivator: A candidate system must be well designed and acceptable to the user. System acceptance is
achieved through user participation in its development, effective user training, and proper motivation to
use the system.
Q8.
Ans.
Write a note on input/output design.
Input Design: Input design is the process of converting user-originated inputs to a computer-based format.
Input Data: The goal of designing input data is to make data entry as easy, logical and free from errors as
possible. In entering data, operators need to know the following:
1. The allocated space for each field
2. Field sequence, which must match that in the source document.
3. The format in which data fields are entered; for example, filling out the date field is required through the
edited format mm/dd/yy.
Input Media and Devices: Source data are input into the system in a variety of ways. The following media
and devices are suitable for operation:
1. Punch Cards
2. Key to diskette
3. MICR
4. Mark-sensing readers
5. Optical bar code readers
6. Cathode Ray tube screens
7. Optical Character recognition (OCR)
Output Design: Computer output is the most important and direct source of information to the user. Efficient,
intelligible output design should improve the system’s relationships with the user and help in decision making.
A major form of output is a hard copy from the printer. Printouts should be designed around the output
requirements of the user. The following media devices are available for providing computer-based output:
1. MICR readers
2. Line, Matrix and Page printers
3. Computer output microfilm
4. CRT screen display
5. Graph Plotters
6. Audio response
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Q9.
Ans.
Discuss the primary characteristics of an open system.
Open System: An open system has many interfaces with its environment. It permits interaction across its
boundary; it receives inputs from outside and delivers outputs to the outside.
Five important characteristics of open systems are:
1. Input from outside: Open systems are self-adjusting and self-regulating. When functioning properly, an
open system reaches a steady state or equilibrium.
2. Entropy: All dynamic systems tend to run down over time, resulting in entropy or loss of energy. Open
systems resist entropy by seeking new inputs or modifying the processes to return to a steady state.
3. Process, output and cycles: Open systems produce useful output and operate in cycles.
4. Differentiation: Open systems have a tendency toward an increasing specialization of functions and a
greater differentiation of their components.
5. Equifinality: The term implies that goals are achieved through differing courses of action and a variety of
paths.
Q10.
Ans.
What advantages does a data dictionary offer in the area of documentation?
Data Dictionary: In data flow diagrams, we give names to data flows, processes and data stores. Although
the names are descriptive of the data, they do not give details. So following the DFD, our interest is to build
some structured place to keep details of the contents of data flows, processes and data store. A data
dictionary is a structured repository of data about data. It is a set of all rigorous definitions of all DFD data
elements and data structures.
A data dictionary has many advantages.
The most common advantage of data dictionary is documentation; it is a valuable reference in any
organization. During implementation, it serves as a common base against which programmers who are
working on the system compare their data descriptions. Also control information maintained for each data
element is a cross-referenced in the data dictionary. For example, programs that use a given data element are
cross-referenced in a data dictionary, which makes it easy to identify them and make any necessary changes.
Finally, a data dictionary is an important step in building a database. Most database management systems
have a data dictionary as a standard feature.
Q.11. What is a decision tree? Explain with example.
Ans. The logic of the process, which may not be very clear through DFD, can easily be represented using a graphic
representation, which looks like the branches of a tree, called decision tree. A decision tree has as many branches as
there are logical alternatives. It is one way to display an algorithm. Inorder to construct a decision tree: an attribute to
be placed at the root of the decision tree has to be selected and a branch has to be made for every possible value.
This process has to be repeated recursively for each branch. Example of decision-tree is as follows:
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Q12.Explain briefly the procedure used to construct questionnaires. Also list their advantages.
Ans. A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose
of gathering information from respondents. Although they are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses,
this is not always the case
The procedure for constructing a questionnaire consists of six steps:
1. Decide what data should be collected, that is, define the problem to be investigated.
2. Decide what type of questionnaire (closed or open-ended) should be used.
3. Outline the topics for the questionnaire and then write the questions.
4. Edit the questionnaire for technical defects or biases that reflect personal values.
5. Pretest the questionnaire to see how well it works.
6. Do a final editing to ensure that the questionnaire is ready for administration. This includes a close look at
the content, form, and sequence of questions as well as the appearance and clarity of the procedure for
using the questionnaire.
The advantages of a questionnaire are as follows:
 The responses are gathered in a standardised way, so questionnaires are more objective, certainly
more so than interviews.

Generally it is relatively quick to collect information using a questionnaire. However in some
situations they can take a long time not only to design but also to apply and analyse (see
disadvantages for more information).
 Potentially information can be collected from a large portion of a group. This potential is not often
realised, as returns from questionnaires are usually low. However return rates can be dramatically
improved if the questionnaire is delivered and responded to in class time.
Usually, a questionnaire consists of a number of questions that the respondent has to answer in a set format. A
distinction is made between open-ended and closed-ended questions. An open-ended question asks the
respondent to formulate his own answer, whereas a closed-ended question has the respondent pick an answer
from a given number of options. The response options for a closed-ended question should be exhaustive and
mutually exclusive.
Q13.
Ans.
Explain the advantages of top down design.
A design is said to be top-down if it consists of a hierarchy of modules, with each module having a single entry
and a single exit subroutine. Top-down design is an incremental approach to the construction of program
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structure. In this design strategy, the design starts from the highest level module and moves down to the
lowest level. The main module is divided into several smaller and simpler sub-modules based on the task
performed by each module.
N1
N2
N5
N8
N3
N6
N4
N7
N9
Top Down in a series of four steps:
The top down approach is performed
The Main control module is used asDesign
a design driver and stubs are substituted for all components directly
subordinate to the main control module.
Depending on the Top-down design integration approach, selected subordinate stubs are replaced one at a time
with actual components.
Designs are conducted as each component is integrated.
On completion of each set of design another stub is replaced with real components.
The primary advantages of this design are as follows:
1. Critical interfaces are tested first.
2. Early versions of the design, though incomplete, are useful enough to resemble the real system.
3. Structuring the design provides control and improves confidence.
4. The procedural characteristics define the order that determines processing.
Q14
Ans.
What is implementation? How does it differ from conversion?
Implementation: An important aspect of a system analyst’s job is to make sure that the new design is
implemented to establish standards. The term implementation has different meanings, ranging from the
conversion of a basic application to a complete replacement of a computer system. Implementation is used
here to mean the process of converting a new or a revised system design into an operational one. Conversion
is one aspect of implementation. The other aspects are the post-implementation review and maintenance.
Conversion: Conversion means changing from one system to another. The objective is to put the tested
system into operation while holding costs, risks, and personnel irritation to a minimum. It is one part of the
implementation. A critical aspect of conversion is not disrupting the functioning of the organization.
Three different types of implementation are:
1. Implementation of a computer system to replace a manual system: The problems encountered are
converting files, training users, creating accurate files and verifying printouts for integrity.
2. Implementation of a new computer system to replace an existing one: This is usually a difficult
conversion. If not properly planned, there can be many problems. Some large computer systems have
taken as long as a year to convert.
3. Implementation of a modified application to replace existing one: This type of conversion is relatively
easy to handle, provided there are no major changes in the files.
Q15.
Ans.
Explain the term system design. Also explain the various phases of system design.
The design phase focuses on the detailed implementation of the system recommended in the feasibility study.
Emphasis is on translating performance specifications into design specifications. The design phase is a
transition from a user-oriented document to a document oriented to the programmers or database personnel.
System design goes through two phases of development:
1. Logical design
2. Physical Design
1. Logical Design: A data flow diagram shows the logical flow of a system and defines the boundaries of the
system. For a candidate system, it describes the inputs, outputs, databases, and procedures all in a format
that meets the user’s requirements. The logical design covers the following:
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a) Reviews the current physical system
b) Prepares output specifications
c) Prepares input specification
d) Prepares edit, security and control specification
e) Specifies the implementation plan
f) Reviews benefits, costs, target dates and system constraints.
2. Physical Design: Following logical design is physical design. This produces the working system by
defining the design specifications that tell programmers exactly what the candidate system must do. In
turn, the programmer writes the necessary programs or modifies the software package that accepts input
from the user, performs the necessary calculations through the existing file or database, produces the
report on a hard copy or displays it on a screen. Physical system design consists of the following steps:
a) Design the physical system.
b) Plan system implementation.
c) Devise a test and implementation plan and specify any new hardware/software.
d) Update benefits, costs, conversion date and system constraints.
Q16.
Ans.
What is the purpose of system testing? Explain the different types of system testing.
Testing is vital to the success of the system. System testing makes a logical assumption that if all the parts of
the system are correct, the goal will be achieved. Inadequate testing or non-testing leads to errors that may
not appear until months later. Another reason for system testing is its utility as a user-oriented vehicle before
implementation. The best program is worthless if it does not meet user needs. System testing consists of the
following steps:
1. Program testing
2. String testing
3. System testing
4. System documentation
5. User acceptance testing
1. Program testing: A program represents the logical elements of a system. For a program to run
satisfactorily, it must compile and test data correctly and tie in properly with other programs. Program
testing checks for two types of errors: Syntax and logic. A syntax error is a program statement that violates
one or more rules of the language in which it is written. A logic error, on the other hand, deals with
incorrect data fields, out-of-range items, and invalid combinations. Since diagnostics do not detect errors,
the programmers must examine the output carefully for them
2. String testing: Programs are invariably related to one another and interact in a total system. Each
program is tested to see whether it conforms to related programs in the system.
3. System Testing: System testing is designed to uncover weaknesses that were not found in earlier tests.
This includes forced system failure and validation of the total system, as it will be implemented by its user
in the operational environment.
4. System documentation: All design and test documentation should be finalized and entered in the library
for future reference. The library is the central location for maintenance of the new system. The format,
organization, and language of documentation should be in line with system standards.
5. User Acceptance testing: An acceptance test has the objective of selling the user on the validity and
reliability of the system. It verifies that the system’s procedures operate to system specifications and that
the integrity of vital data is maintained.
Q17.
Ans.
What is Software Requirement Specification? Explain its significance.
A Software Requirements Specification (SRS) – a requirements specification for a software system – is a
complete description of the behavior of a system to be developed. It includes a set of use cases that describe
all the interactions the users will have with the software. In addition to use cases, the SRS also contains nonfunctional (or supplementary) requirements. Non-functional requirements are requirements which impose
constraints on the design or implementation. Significance of SRS includes:
1. Establish the basis for agreement between the customers and the suppliers on what the software product
is to do.
2. The complete description of the functions to be performed by the software specified in the SRS will assist
the potential users to determine if the software specified meets their needs or how the software must be
modified to meet their needs.
3. Provide a basis for estimating costs and schedules. The description of the product to be developed as
given in the SRS is a realistic basis for estimating project costs and can be used to obtain approval for
bids or price estimates.
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4. Provide a baseline for validation and verification. Organizations can develop their validation and
Verification plans much more productively from a good SRS.
5. Facilitate transfer. The SRS makes it easier to transfer the software product to new users or new
machines. Customers thus find it easier to transfer the software to other parts of their organization, and
suppliers find it easier to transfer it to new customers.
6. Serve as a basis for enhancement. Because the SRS discusses the product but not the project that
developed it, the SRS serves as a basis for later enhancement of the finished product.
Q18.
Ans.
What is structured analysis? List various tools used in structured analysis.
Structured Analysis: Structured analysis is a set of techniques and graphical tools that allow the analyst to
develop a new kind of system specifications that are easily understandable to the user. The traditional
approach focuses on cost/benefit and feasibility analyses, project management, hardware and software
selection, and personnel considerations. In contrast, structured analysis considers new goals and structured
tools for analysis. The new goals specify the following:
1. Use graphics wherever possible to help communicate better with the user.
2. Differentiate between logical and physical systems.
3. Build a logical system model to familiarize the user with system characteristics and interrelationships
before implementation.
The various tools used in structured analysis are:
1. Data flow diagram (DFD)
2. Data Dictionary
3. Structured English
4. Decision trees
5. Decision tables
6. Pseudo code
Q19.
Ans.
Explain object oriented development life cycle and modeling.
Object Oriented Development Life cycle:
The object-oriented development process starts with a customer communication phase. In this phase the
main emphasis is on developing the framework of object oriented project . The main stress, in object oriented
analysis and design is upon ‘reuse’. Instead of developing objects from scratch, they looked up in the
existing library of classes. The objects are also developed in such away that promotes their reusability after
completion of their development.
In most general form, object oriented analysis and design methods are composed of the following basic
steps. However the details and the ordering of the steps vary quite a lot.

Identify the ways in which the system interacts with its environment

Identify objects and their properties (or attributes) and method names that manipulate these objects.

Establish the existing relationships between objects.

Identify and characterize the interface(s) of each object

Anticipate exceptions that may occur in the objects operations and design the way they would be
handled.

Implement the objects thus identified into a formal language.

Test the objects constructed so far

Assemble the objects to form the complete system

Test the system.
Q.20. Write a short-note on audit trail.
. Ans: An Audit trial is a routine designed to allow the analyst, user, or auditor to verify a process or an area in the new
system. In a manual system, audit trial includes journals, ledgers and other documents that the auditor uses to
trace transactions through the system. However, in an online environment, the form, content and accessibility of
records are such that the auditor often has difficulty following a single transaction completely through the
system. Some reasons are as follows:
o Source documents are no longer used by the system after they are transcribed onto a machinereadable medium.
o Files stored on a tape or disk can be read only by a computer which limits the auditing function.
o Processing activities are difficult to observe since most of them are within the system.
One way to maintain a viable audit trail is to keep a detailed file of the transactions as they occur. The file can then
be input for an audit program that extracts the transactions for selected accounts and prints them so that the
auditor can trace the status of the account in detail. The important steps in evaluation are as follows:
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a.
Define the control objectives as separate design and test requirements.
b.
Re-examine the budget costs to see whether system testing is within limits.
c.
Review specifications.
It is the auditor’s responsibility to build controls into candidate systems to ensure integrity, reliability and
confidence of the users at all levels. The auditor should be called in during design as well as testing so that any
suggestions he/she has, can be considered before implementation, when changes are less costly.
Q.21 What is user-interface and its types.
Ans. Abbreviated UI, it is the junction between a user and a computer program. An interface is a set
of commands or menus through which a user communicates with a software. The user interface is the system
that helps users communicate with the computer system and/or the application system. During the system design
process, end user involvement is a must so that the appropriate user interface is designed which meets the user
requirements. To design a better user interface so that the system analyst and end users get better information in and
out of the system, the following objectives have to be met:
• The user interface should be matched with the task.
• It should be efficient, ensuring a good speed of data entry with minimum errors..
• Should provide appropriate feedback to users.
• Should generate usable queries.
• The interface should improve productivity.
Different types of user-interface are as follows:
Natural-language interfaces permit users to interact with the computer in their "natural" language.
Question and answer interface-It is an interface in which the computer displays a question for the user on the
screen. The user enters an answer via the keyboard or a mouse click. Following which, the computer acts on the input
information in a preprogrammed manner.
New users may find the question-and-answer interface most comfortable
A menu interface provides the user with an onscreen list of available selections. Menus could be nested and could
be set-up to use keyboard/mouse.
Form-fill interfaces are onscreen forms displaying fields containing data items or parameters that need to be
communicated to the user. Form-fill interfaces may be implemented using the Web.
Command language interface allows the user to control the application with a series of keystrokes, commands,
phrases, or some sequence of these. It requires memorization of syntax rules which may be an obstacle for
inexperienced users.
Graphical User Interface(GUI)-allow direct manipulation of the graphical representation on the screen. It can be
accomplished with keyboard input, joystick, or mouse. This interface requires more system sophistication than other
interfaces.
Q.22. What are the different methods of on-site observation?
Ans. One of the important techniques to collect data is on-site observation. In this method, the analysts observe the
activities of the system directly. One purpose of on-site observation is to get as close as possible to the real system
being studied. During on-site observation, the analyst can see the office environment, workload of the system and the
users, methods of work and the facilities provided by the organization to the users. While making observations, he is
more likely to listen than talk and to listen with a sympathetic and genuine interest when information is conveyed.
The different methods of on-site observation are as follows:
a: Natural observation- Takes place in a setting, such as employee’s work place.
b: Contrived observation- takes place in a set-up by the observer, such as laboratories.
c: Obtrusive observation- This takes place with the knowledge of the respondent. For eg. visiting of external auditor
in an organization.
d: Unobtrusive observation- This is held without the knowledge of the respondent.
e: Direct observation- This takes place when the observer observes the system at work by physically present at the
actual work-place.
f: Indirect observation- This makes use of secondary devices such as video cameras to capture observation.
g: Structured observation- It takes place in a formal way in which each activity in the observation is pre-defined.
h: Unstructured observation- In this type of observation, the observer observes whatever might be pertinent at the
time.
Q.23. Write a short-note on HIPO chart.
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Ans. HIPO is a forms-driven technique in that standard forms are used to document the information. It consists of a
hierarchy chart and an associated set of input/process/output charts. HlPO captures the essence of top- down
decomposition; it describes the data input and output from processes and defines the data flow composition. It was
developed by IBM as a design aid and implementation technique with the following objectives:
1. Provide a structure by which the functions of a system can be understood.
2. State the functions to be performed by the program rather than specifying the program statements to be used to
perform the functions.
3. Provide a visual description of input to be used and output to be 'produced for each level of the diagram. HIPO
makes the transformation of input to output data visible.
HIPO uses easy-to-draw vector-like symbols between processes that define data communicati0n and data
direction. The procedure for generating HIPO diagrams is simple:
1. Begin at the highest level of abstraction and define the inputs to the system and the outputs from it in aggregate
terms.
2. Identify the processing steps by those that convert input into output.
3. Document each element using HIPO diagram notation and the associated tree-like structure.
4. Identify sub processes and their respective inputs and outputs. Continue decomposition until the processes cannot
be decomposed any further.
It is important to use HIPO early in the design phase of a project so that designers can document their thoughts
concurrently with the design process. Thus, the preparation of HIPO diagrams is a by-product of the thought process
of the design rather than an additional chore.
Q.24. What is Software Quality Assurance?
Ans. Software quality assurance (SQA) is a systematic, planned set of actions necessary to provide adequate
confidence that the software development process or the maintenance process of a software system product conforms
to established functional technical requirements as well as with the managerial requirements of keeping the schedule
and operating within the budgetary confines.
SQA is a comprehensive life-cycle approach concerned with every aspect of the software product development
process and includes comprehensive set of quality objectives, measurable quality attributes to assess progress
towards the objectives and quantitative certification targets for all component of the software development processes.
The Objectives of SQA are as follows:
(1) Assuring an acceptable level of confidence that the software will conform to functional technical requirements.
(2) Assuring an acceptable level of confidence that the software will conform to managerial scheduling and budgetary
requirements.
(3) Initiation and management of activities for the improvement and greater efficiency of software development and
SQA activities.
Typical activities of a SQA process
– Requirements validation.
– Design verification.
– Static code checking(inspection/reviews).
– Dynamic testing.
– Process engineering and standards.
– Metrics and continuous improvement
Q.25. What is a system? What are the elements of a system?
Ans. A system is an orderly grouping of interdependent components linked together according to a plan to
achieve a specific objective. We come into daily contact with the transportation system, the telephone system,
the accounting system etc.
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To construct a system, the following key elements must be considered:
1. Outputs and inputs: A major objective of a system is to produce an output that has value to its user.
Whatever the nature of the output, it must be in line with the expectations of the intended user. Inputs are
the elements that enter the system for processing. The output component produces the processed
elements in the form of information products to another system for further processing or as a final
objective.
2. Processor(s): The processor is the element of a system that involves the actual transformation of input
into output. It is the operational component of a system. Processors may modify the input totally or
partially, depending on the specification of the output.
3. Control: The control element guides the system. It is the decision-making subsystem that controls the
pattern of activities governing input, processing and output.
4. Feedback: Control in a dynamic system is achieved by feedback. Feedback measures output against a
standard in some form of cybernetic procedure that includes communication and control.
5. Environment: The environment is the “supra-system” within which an organization operates. It is the
source of external element that impinges on the system. In fact it often determines how a system must
function.
6. Boundaries and interfaces: A system should be defined by its boundaries-the limits that identify its
components, processes, and interrelationships when it interfaces with another system.
Q.26. How will you generate a feasibility analysis Report of the system?
Ans. Feasibility analysis is carried out in the following steps:
Form a Project Team and Appoint a Project Leader: First of all, project management group of the
organization, forms separate teams for independent projects. Each project team comprises of one or more
system analysts and programmers with a project leader. The project leader is responsible for planning and
managing the development activities of the system.
Start Preliminary Investigation: The system analyst of each project team starts preliminary investigations
through different fact finding techniques.
Prepare the Current Systems Flow Chart: After preliminary investigations, the analysts prepare the systems
flow chart of the current system. These charts describe the general working of the system in a graphical way.
Describe the Deficiencies in the Current system: On studying the systems flow chart, the analysts identify
and describe the deficiencies in the current system.
Determine Objectives of the Proposed System: The major objectives of the proposed systems are listed by
each analyst and are discussed with the project leader.
Prepare the Proposed Systems Flow Chart: After determining the major objectives of the proposed system,
the analysts prepare their systems flow chart. Systems flow chart of the proposed system are compared with
those of current system in order to ensure that they meet the objectives.
Determine the Technical Feasibility: The existing computer systems (hardware and software) of the
concerned department are identified and their technical specifications are noted down. The analysts decide,
whether the existing systems are sufficient for the technical requirements of the proposed system or not.
Determine the Economic Feasibility: The analysts determine the costs and benefits of the proposed system
in order to ensure that the project is economically feasible.
Determine the Operational Feasibility: After determining the economic feasibility, the analysts identify the
responsible users of the system and hence, determine the operational feasibility of the project.
Presentation of feasibility Analysts: During the feasibility study, the analysts also keep on preparing the
feasibility study report. At the end of feasibility analysis, the feasibility analysis report is given to the
management along with an oral presentation.
Q.27. Write and explain the requirements of form design:
Ans. Requirements of forms Design
Forms design follows analyzing forms, evaluating present documents, and creating new or improved forms.
Bear in mind that detailed analysis occurs only after the problem definition stage and the beginning of
designing the candidate system. Since the purpose of a form is to communicate effectively through forms
design, there are several major requirements.
Identification and wording: The form title must clearly identify its purpose. Columns and rows should be
labeled to avoid confusion. The form should also be identified by firm name or code number to make it easy
to reorder.
Maximum readability and use: The form must be easy to use and fill out. It should be legible, intelligible,
and uncomplicated. Ample writing space must be provided for inserting data. This means analyzing for
adequate space and balancing the overall forms layout, administration, and use.
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Physical factors: The form’s composition, color, layout (margins, space, etc.), and paper stock should lend
themselves to easy reading. Pages should be numbered when multiage reports are being generated for the
user.
Order of data items: The data requested should reflect a logical sequence. Related data should be in
adjacent positions. Data copied from source documents should be in the same sequence on both forms.
Much of this design takes place in the forms analysis phase.
Ease of data entry: If used for data entry, the form should have field positions indicated under each column
of data and should have some indication of where decimal points are (use broken vertical lines).
Size and arrangement: The form must be easily stored and filed. It should provide for signatures. Important
items must be in a prominent location on the form.
Use of instructions: The instructions that accompany a form should clearly show how it is used and
handled.
Efficiency considerations: The form must be cost effective. This means eliminating unnecessary data and
facilitating reading lines across the form. To illustrate, if a poorly designed form causes 10 supervisors to
waste 30 seconds each, then 5 minutes are lost because of the form. If the firm uses 10,000 of these forms
per year, then 833 hours of lost time could have been saved by a better forms design.
Type of report: Form design should also consider whether the content is executive summary, intermediate
managerial information, or supporting-data. The user requirements for each type often determine the final
form design
Q.28.
Ans.
What are the activities in the implementation phase of a system?
The implementation phase is less creative than system design. It is primarily concerned with user training,
site preparation and file conversion. When the candidate system is linked to terminal or remote sites, the
telecommunication network and tests of network along with the system are also included under
implementation.
During the final testing, user acceptance is tested, followed by user training. Depending on the nature of the
system, extensive user training may be required. Conversion usually takes place at about the same time,
when the user is being trained or later.
In the extreme, the programmer is falsely viewed as someone, who ought to be isolated from other aspects
of system development. Programming is itself a design work, however, the initial parameters of the candidate
system should be modified, as a result of the programming efforts. Programming provides a reality test for
the assumption made by the analyst. It is, therefore, a mistake to exclude programmers from the initial
system design. System testing checks the readiness and accuracy of the system to access update and
retrieve data from new files. Once the programs become available, test data are read into computer and
processed against the files provided for testing. If successful, the program is then run with live data.
Otherwise, a diagnostic procedure is used to locate and correct errors in the program. In most conversions, a
parallel run is conducted, where the new system runs simultaneously with the old system. This system,
though costly, provides added assurance against errors in the candidates system, and also provides
opportunity to the staff to work with the new system. However, in some cases it is not possible to run parallel
systems. For example, it is not possible to run two parallel online Point Of Sale (POS) systems for a retail
chain. In any case, after the candidate system proves itself, the old system is phased out.
There are three aspects of implementation:
 Training personnel: It involves systems operator training and user training. Training of operator
and users can be organized in several different ways. Most important are among them are:
 Vendor and in-service training
 In-house training
 Conversion procedures: Conversion is a process of changing from the old system to the new
one. It must be properly planned and executed. Four methods are common in use. They are:
 Parallel systems
 Direct conversion
 Pilot system
 System phase-in
Post implementation review: After the system is implemented and conversion is complete, a review should be
conducted to determine whether the system is meeting expectations and where improvements are needed. A
post implementation review measures the system’s performance against pre-defined requirements. It determines
how well the system continues to meet performance specifications. It also provides information to determine
whether major re-design or modification is required.
Q.29. What is an E-R model?
Ans.In software engineering, an Entity – Relationship model (ER model ) is an abstract way to describe
a database. It usually starts with a relational database, which stores data in tables. Using the three schema
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approach to software engineering, there are three levels of ER models that may be developed. The conceptual data
model is the highest level ER model in that it contains the least granular detail but establishes the overall scope of
what is to be included within the model set. The logical ER model contains more detail than the conceptual ER model.
In addition to master data entities, operational and transactional data entities are now defined. The physical model is
normally forward engineered to instantiate the structural metadata into a database management system as relational
database objects such as database tables, indexes , and database constraints.
The building blocks of an E-R model are: entity, relationship, attributes. An entity may be defined as a thing
which is recognized as being capable of an independent existence and which can be uniquely identified. An entity may
be a physical object such as a house or a car, an event such as a house sale or a car service, or a concept such as
a customer transaction or order. A relationship captures how entities are related to one another. Entities and
relationships can both have attributes. For eg. an employee entity might have a Social Security Number (SSN)
attribute. In this model, tables can be related as any of the following: many-to-many, many-to-one (rev. one-tomany), or one-to-one. This is said to be the cardinality of a given table in relation to another.
The entity–relationship modeling uses rectangles to represent entities, and diamonds to represent relationships.
Attributes are drawn as ovals and are connected with a line to exactly one entity or relationship set. If an entity set
participates in a relationship set, they are connected with a line.
Cardinality constraints are expressed as follows:
A double line indicates a participation constraint. All entities in the entity set must participate in at least one
relationship in the relationship set;
An arrow from entity set to relationship set indicates a key constraint. Each entity of the entity set can participate in at
most one relationship in the relationship set;
A thick line indicates both: each entity in the entity set is involved in exactly one relationship.
An underlined name of an attribute indicates that it is a key: two different entities or relationships with this attribute
always have different values for this attribute.
Q.30. Explain the difference between dynamic and cybernetic systems.
Ans. A system is a set of inter-related tasks and procedures working in co-ordination towards achieving a common
objective by receiving the inputs and providing the outputs in an organized form. Such a system can be called as
dynamic system and has three basic components: input, process and output. All systems operate in an environment
where a system is designed to achieve objectives. It sets boundaries for itself. The environment influences the
inputs, procedures for processing and nature of outputs. The figure below shows the model of a dynamic system.
Environment
Boundary
Input
Processing
Output
A system which includes two or more components called feedback and control is more effective. Such selfregulating and self-monitoring system is called a cybernetic system. The data that is received about system
performance is called feedback. Control is an important system function that monitors and evaluates the feedback to
establish if the system is going towards achieving its goal. To ensure that proper output is produced, the control
component can make needed adjustments to the input and processing components of the system. The diagram
below shows a cybernetic system:
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Feedback
Input
Control
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Feedback
Processing
Output
Q.31. Write a short-note on Joint Application development.
Ans. Joint Application Development (JAD) is a process that accelerates the design of information technology
solutions. JAD uses customer involvement and group dynamics to accurately depict the user's view of the business
need and to jointly develop a solution. Before the advent of JAD, requirements were identified by interviewing
stakeholders individually. The ineffectiveness of this interviewing technique, which focused on individual input rather
than group consensus, led to the development of the JAD approach.
JAD offers a team oriented approach to the development of information management solutions that emphasize a
consensus-based problem-solving model. By incorporating facilitated workshops and emphasizing a spirit of
partnership, JAD enables system requirements to be documented more quickly and accurately than if a traditional
approach were used. Chuck Morris of IBM conceived JAD in 1977.
When to use JAD:
Project Types
JAD can be successfully applied to a wide range of projects, including the following:
 ·New systems
 ·Enhancements to existing systems
 ·System conversions
 ·Purchase of a system
Project Characteristics
Not all projects, however, are good candidates for JAD. An appropriate project exhibits at least some of the following
characteristics:
 ·Involves many groups of users whose responsibilities cross traditional department or division
boundaries
 ·Is considered critical to the future success of the organization
 ·Involves willing users
 ·Is a first-time project for the organization
 ·Has a troubled project history or relationship between the systems and user organizations
As the development team and the customer become more comfortable with the JAD approach, more complex projects
can be undertaken.
Q.32. What is instructor-led training? What are its types?
Ans. Instructor-led training or ILT, is the practice of training and learning material between an instructor and
learners, either individuals or groups. Instructors can also be referred to as a facilitator, who may be knowledgeable
and experienced in the learning material, but can also be used more for their facilitation skills and ability to deliver
material to learners.
ILT is an effective means of delivering information, as it allows for real-time feedback, questions and answers,
manipulation and changeable delivery to suit the needs of learners in a real-time environment, and a learning
environment can be created by the instructor's style.
Instructors may deliver training in a lecture or classroom format, as an interactive workshop, as a demonstration with
the opportunity for learners to practice, or even virtually, utilizing video-conferencing tools; and the instructor may have
facilitation and teaching skills, in which they can utilize different methods to engage learners.
There are two types of instructor-led training: virtual and normal class-room.
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Virtual Instructor-Led Training blends the qualities of Instructor-Led classroom training with the convenience of a
virtual, online classroom. The trainer and trainees may not be at the same place. The tools used for training include
video conferencing, or virtual reality packages or text-based internet relay chats. In a normal classroom training, the
trainers and trainees must meet at the same time and place. The tools used could be blackboard, LCD projectors, etc.
Q.33. Explain the pros and cons of each tool used in structured analysis. Draw the DFD for inventory control
system
Ans.
Which tool is the best depends on a number of factors: the nature and complexity of the problem, the
number of actions resulting from the decisions, and the ease of use. In reviewing the benefits and
limitations of each tool, we come to the following conclusions:
1. The primary strength of the DFD is its ability to represent data flows. It may be used at high or low levels
of analysis and provides good system documentation. However, the tool only weakly shows input and
output detail. The user often finds it confusing initially.
2. The data dictionary helps the analyst simplify the structure for meeting the data requirements of the
system. It may be used at high or low levels of analysis, but it does not provide functional details, and it
is not acceptable to many non-technical users.
3. Structured English is best used when the problem requires sequences of actions with decisions.
4. Decision trees are used to verify logic and in problems that involve a few complex decisions resulting in
a limited number of actions.
5. Decision trees and decision tables are best suited for dealing with complex branching routines such as
calculating discounts or sales commissions or inventory control procedures.
The DFD for inventory control system is as shown below:
DFD Example
Customer
Warehouse
Invalid Orders
Orders
Order Detail
1.
Receive Order
Cust.Name,
Address
Orders
Shipping Detail
Customers
Cust.Name,
Address
Billing Info
Cust.Name,
Address
Invoices
Goods info
2.
Ship goods
Goods info
Invoice Statement
Invoice Details
Customer
3.
Collect Pmts
Pmt. Inquiries
Q.34.Write a short note on Post Implementation Review.
Ans. The Post-Implementation Review is used to evaluate the effectiveness of the system development after the
system has been in production for a period of time (normally 6 months). The objectives are to determine if the system
does what it is designed to do, whether it supports the user as required in an effective and efficient manner. The
review should assess how successful the system is in terms of functionality, performance, and cost versus benefits, as
well as assess the effectiveness of the life-cycle development activities that produced the system. The review results
can be used to strengthen the system as well as system development procedures.
The review is scheduled to follow the release of a system or system revision by an appropriate amount of time to
allow determination of the effectiveness of the system. A representative from the functional development group or
other member of the major user organization participates in the review. The System Proponent ensures that all
documentation and all personnel needed to participate in the review are accessible.
The reviewer and an assigned team collect the information needed for the Post-Implementation Review by interviewing
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end users and their managers, system administrators, and computer operations personnel. The report is then
prepared and provided to the user organization that requested it and the information systems organization, which may
jointly use the findings to initiate other actions.
The Post-Implementation Review is a free-form report, and not all sections are relevant or necessary to the final
product. A description of the Post-Implementation Review Report is attached.
10-mark questions:
Q.1.
Ans.
Explain the various stages of SDLC.
System development, consisting of two components system analysis and system design, starts only
when a new system or an improvement in the existing system is required. A candidate system has a life
cycle, just like a living system or a new product. The stages are shown in the figure below. The analyst
must progress from one stage to another methodically.
Identifying Problem
Determining information
requirements
Analyzing system needs
Designing the proposed
system
Developing software
Testing
Implementing
STEPS IN SYSTEM DESIGN
Major steps in the SDLC are briefly described below:
Identifying the problem
One must know, what the problem is before it can be solved. The basis for a candidate system is the
recognition of a need for improving an information system or a procedure. If the problem is serious enough,
management may want to have an analyst look at it. In larger organizations, where formal procedures are
the norms, the analyst’s first task is to prepare a statement specifying the scope and objective of the
problem. He/She then reviews it with the user to check if the system is working towards the objectives or
there whether there were any problems in the system. Once, the problem has been identified, an important
consideration at this stage is the feasibility of the proposed project. Feasibility has 4 important aspects which
are: technical, time, economic, operational feasibility. Technical Feasibility identifies whether the technical
resources are sufficient for the proposed system or not. Economic Feasibility is the most important study
that determines the cost and benefits of the proposed system and compares it with the budget. Operational
Feasibility determines whether the system will operate in the way that the user wants.
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Time feasibility is the determination of whether a proposed project can be implemented fully within a
stipulated time frame.
Determining information requirements- At this stage, the system analyst determines the requirements
from the user, for the system to work. Sampling and investigating hard data, interviewing, questionnaires,
etc. are the tools used for this purpose. Sampling involves systematically determining the selective
representative elements of a population. Interviewing is a directed conversation in ‘question and answer’
format. Questionnaire can be used to collect large data from the users of the system.
Analyzing system needs
At this stage, the system analyst by analyzing the system requirements, determines whether the proposed
system is right and headed in the right direction. Various structured analysis tools are used for this
purpose, which are: data flow diagram, decision tree, decision table. data dictionary, etc.
System Design
The most creative and challenging phase of the system life cycle is system design. The term design,
describes a final system and process by which it is developed. It refers to the technical specifications
(analogous to engineer’s blue prints) that will be applied in implementing the candidate system.
The design process of a software system involves two important phases: logical design and physical
design. During logical design, the dataflow diagrams made during the analysis phase are analyzed and
converted into the design that reveals various kinds of quality attributes supported by structured design.
During the physical design phase, the necessary changes are made to the logical design to incorporate the
changes in end-user requirements.
Developing and documenting software-In this phase, the software is developed. The system analyst works
with the programmers. The programmers may use purchased programs or they may design their own
customized programs. The documentation is also done explaining why the procedures are coded in a certain
way.
Testing
No system design is ever perfect. Communication problems, programmer’s negligence or time constraints
create errors that most be eliminated before the system is ready for user acceptance testing. A system is
tested for online response, volume of transactions, stress, recovery form failure and usability. Then comes
system testing, which verifies that the whole set of programs hang together, following system testing is
acceptance testing or running the system with live data by the actual use. System testing requires a test plan
that consists of several key activities and steps for programs string, system and user acceptance testing.
Implementation
The implementation phase is less creative that system design. It is primarily concerned with user training, site
preparation and file conversion. When the candidate system is linked to terminal or remote sites, the
telecommunication network and tests of network along with the system are also included under implementation.
During the final testing, user acceptance is tested, followed by user training. Depending on the nature of the
system, extensive user training may be required. Conversion from old system to new one, usually takes place at
about the same time, when the user is being trained or later.
Evaluation-Various evaluation approaches are developed for evaluating the system, including the revised
design evaluation approach, user involvement evaluations and cost-benefit analysis.
Q2.
Ans.
Write short notes on Elements and various types of System.
A system is an orderly grouping of interdependent components linked together according to a plan to
achieve a specific objective. We come into daily contact with the transportation system, the telephone system,
the accounting system etc.
To construct a system, the following key elements must be considered:
1. Outputs and inputs: A major objective of a system is to produce an output that has value to its user.
Whatever the nature of the output, it must be in line with the expectations of the intended user. Inputs are the
elements that enter the system for processing. The output component produces the processed elements in
the form of information products to another system for further processing or as a final objective.
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2. Processor(s): The processor is the element of a system that involves the actual transformation of input into
output. It is the operational component of a system. Processors may modify the input totally or partially,
depending on the specification of the output.
3. Control: The control element guides the system. It is the decision-making subsystem that controls the
pattern of activities governing input, processing and output.
4. Feedback: Control in a dynamic system is achieved by feedback. Feedback measures output against a
standard in some form of cybernetic procedure that includes communication and control.
5. Environment: The environment is the “supra-system” within which an organization operates. It is the source
of external element that impinges on the system. In fact it often determines how a system must function.
6. Boundaries and interfaces: A system should be defined by its boundaries-the limits that identify its
components, processes, and interrelationships when it interfaces with another system.
Systems are of the following types:
.
Physical or Abstract system: Physical systems are tangible entities that may be static or dynamitic
operation. E.g. The physical parts of computer center are the offices, desks and chairs that facilitate
operation of the computer. They can be seen and counted; they are static.
Abstract systems are conceptual or nonphysical entities. They may be as straight forward as formulae of
relationships among sets of variables or models, the abstract conceptualization of physical situations. A
model is a representation of a real or a planned system. They use of models makes it easier for the analyst
to visualize relationships in the systems under study. The objective is to point out the key interrelationships
of a complex system.
Open or closed system: Another classification of systems is based on their degree of independence. An
open system has many interfaces with its environment. It permits action across its boundary. It receives
inputs from and delivers outputs to the outside. A closed system is isolated from environmental influences.
The occurrences in the environment do not affect the nature and functioning of the closed system.
Man Made information system: Man-made information systems are those systems which provide a specific
task according to user requirements. The basis of the information system may be defined as a set of devices,
procedures and OS designed around user-based criteria to produce information and communicate it to the
user for planning, control and performance. The major information systems are formal, informal and
computer based. Formal information Systems: A formal information system is based on the organization
represented by organization chart. The chart is a map of positions and their authority relationships, indicated
by boxes and connected by straight lines. It is concerned with a pattern of authority communication and
workflow. Information is formally disseminated in instructions; memos or reports from top management to the
intended user in the organization. All the policies are developed by top management and transmitted to lower
lad management for implementation. The output represents employee performance.
Informal information system: The informal system works under an organization. It is an employee based
system designed to meet personnel and vocational needs and to help solve work related problems. It also
funnels information upward through indirect channels. In this respect it is a useful system because it works
within the framework of the business and its stated policies.
Computer Based information systems: Computer based information systems manage system with the
help of computer. This works if the Analyst is familiar with computer technology. There are two types of
computer based information system:
Management information system (MIS) and Decision support system (DSS)
Q.3.
Ans.
Explain the various types of feasibility.
The proposed system has to be determined whether its workable or not. This is what is called feasibility
analysis. During feasibility analysis, the analyst considers seven distinct types of feasibility, all of which are
interrelated.
Technical Feasibility: During this study, the analyst identifies the existing computer systems (hardware and
software) of the concerned department and determines whether these technical resources are sufficient for the
proposed system or not. If they are not sufficient, the analyst suggests the configuration of he computer
systems that are required. The analyst generally pursues two or three different configurations which satisfy the
key technical requirements but which represent different costs. During technical feasibility study, financial
resources and budget is also considered. The main objective of technical feasibility is to determine, whether
the project is technically feasible, provided it is economically feasible.
Economic Feasibility: Economic feasibility is the most important study that determines the cost and benefits
of the proposed system and compares with the budget. The cost of the project should not outweigh the
budget. The cost of the project includes the cost of hardware, software, development and implementation.
Cost/benefit analyst is the common method to determine the benefits that are expected from the proposed
system and compare them with the cost expected to spend on development of the system. If benefits are
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found to be more than costs, then the analyst decides to continue the development of the proposed system,
otherwise considers it economically not feasible. The feasibility study present both tangible (e.g., increased
productivity, low operating cost, etc) and intangible benefits (e.g., improved organizational planning, improved
assets utilization, etc) in a formal way. Operational Feasibility: When it is found that the project is both
economically and technically feasible, the next step is to determine, whether it is operationally feasible or not.
During operational feasibility study, it is determined, whether the system will operate in the way that the user
wants. Operational feasibility depends upon human resources for the development and implementation of the
system. It is considered, whether the qualified and experienced manpower is available for development and
implementation of the system. User involvement is more required in determining the operational feasibility.
Behavioral Feasibility: People are inherently resistant to change and computers have been known to
facilitated change. An estimate should be made of how strong a reaction the user staff is likely to have towards
the development of a computerized system. It is common knowledge that computer installation has something
to do with turnover, transfer, retraining, and changes in employee job status. Therefore, it is understandable
that the introduction of a candidate system requires special effort to educate, sell and train the staff on new
ways of conducting business.
Social Feasibility: Social feasibility is a determination of, whether a proposed project will be acceptable to the
people or not. This determination, typically examines the probability of the project being accepted by the group
directly affected by the proposed system change.
Management feasibility: It is the determination of whether a proposed project will be acceptable to
management. If management does not accept a project or gives a negligible support to it, the analyst will tend
to view the project as a non-feasible one.
Legal feasibility: Legal feasibility is the determination of whether a proposed project infringes on known acts,
statutes, as well as any pending legislation. Although, in some instances the project might appear sound, on
closer investigation it may be found to infringe on several legal areas.
Time feasibility: Time feasibility is a determination of, whether a proposed project can be implemented fully
within a stipulated time frame. If a project takes too much time it is likely to be rejected.
After the feasibility study, a document is prepared, which is known as ‘Feasibility study Report’. Besides this
report, the analyst also gives the oral presentation of feasibility study to the management.
Q4.
Ans.
Explain Top-down & Bottom-up design.
Top-Down: - A Design Strategy is said to be Top-Down, if it consists of a hierarchy of modules with each
module having a single entry & a single exit subroutine. Top-down design is an incremental approach to the
construction of program structure. In this design strategy, the design starts from the highest level module and
moves down to the lowest level. The main module is divided into several smaller and simpler sub-modules
based on the task performed by each module.
N1
N2
N5
N8
N3
N6
N4
N7
N9
Top Down in a series of four steps:
The top down approach is performed
The Main control module is used asDesign
a design driver and stubs are substituted for all components directly
subordinate to the main control module.
Depending on the Top-down design integration approach, selected subordinate stubs are replaced one at a time
with actual components.
Designs are conducted as each component is integrated.
On completion of each set of design another stub is replaced with real components.
Bottom-up Approach: Bottom-up designing, as its name implies, begins construction and testing with atomic
modules (i.e., components at the lowest levels in the program structure). Because components are integrated
from the bottom up, processing required for components subordinate to a given level is always available and the
need for stubs is eliminated.
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A bottom-up integration strategy may be implemented using the following steps:
Low-level components are combined into clusters (sometimes called builds) that perform a specific software
sub-function.
A driver (a control program for testing) is written to co-ordinate test case input and output.
The cluster is tested.
Drivers are removed and clusters are combined moving upwards in the program structure.
Integration follows the pattern illustrated in figure below. Components are combined to form clusters 1, 2, and 3.
Each of the clusters are tested using a driver (shown as a dashed block). Components in clusters 1 and 2 are
subordinate to Ma. Driver D 1 and D2 are removed and the clusters are interfaced directly to M a. Similarly driver
D3 for cluster 3 is removed prior to integration with module Mb. Both Ma and Mb will ultimately be integrated with
component Mc and so forth.
Mc
Ma
D1
Mb
D2
D3
Cluster 3
Cluster 1
Cluster 2
BOTTOM – UP INTEGRATION
If the top two levels of program structure are integrated top down, the drivers can be reduced substantially and
integration of clusters is greatly simplified.
Q5.
Ans.
Explain Coupling and Cohesion.
Coupling
Coupling is a measure of interconnection among modules in a program structure. It may by represented on a
spectrum as shown in Figure 5.6 Coupling depends on interface complexity between modules, the point at
which entry or reference is made to a module and what data passes the interface.
No direct coupling
Data coupling
Control coupling
Stamp coupling
Low. | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | Coupling
High
External coupling
Content coupling
Common coupling
Spectrum. | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |.
In systems design, we strive for lowest possible coupling,. Simple connectivity among modules result is
software that is easier to understand and less prone to “ripple effect” caused when error occurs at one location
and propagates through a system.
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No direct
coupling
Control flag
Data
Variable
a
Data
Structure
b
d
i
e
c
f
g
h
j
k
Globa
ldata
area
The figure above provides an example of different types of module-coupling. Modules ‘a’ and ‘d’ are
subroutines to different modules. Each is unrelated and therefore no direct coupling occurs. Module ‘c’ is
subordinate to module ‘a’ and is accessed via a conventional argument list through which data are passed; a
one-to-one correspondence of items exists, low coupling (data coupling on the spectrum) is exhibited in this
portion of structure. A variation of data coupling, called stamp coupling is found when a portion of a data
structure (rather than simple arguments) is passed via a module interface. This occurs between module b and
a.
At moderate levels, coupling is characterized by passage of control between modules. Control coupling is
very common in most software designs and is also shown in the figure above. Here i is a control flag (a
variable that controls decision is a subordinate or super-ordinate module) which is passed between modules d
and e. Relatively high level of coupling occurs when modules are tied to an environment external to
software. For example, I/O couples a module to specify devices, formats and communication protocols.
External coupling is essential but should be limited to a small number of modules with-in a structure. High
coupling also occurs when a number of modules refer to a global data area. Common coupling, as this mode
is called, occurs among modules e.g., g and k, in which each uses a global data area. The highest degree of
coupling- content coupling- occurs when one module makes use of data or control information maintained
within the boundaries of another module. Secondly, content coupling occurs when branches are made into the
middle of a module. This mode of coupling can be and should be avoided.
Cohesion
Cohesion is the degree to which a module performs a single task. A cohesive module performs a single
task within a software procedure requiring little interaction with procedures being performed in other parts of a
program. Stated simply, a cohesive module should (ideally) do just one thing. Cohesion may be represented
as a spectrum shown in the figure below. We always strive for high cohesion, although, the medium range of
the spectrum is often acceptable. The scale for cohesion is non-linear. That is, low-ended cohesiveness is
much “worse” than the middle range, which is nearly as “good” as high ended cohesion. In practice, a designer
need not be concerned with categorizing cohesion in a specific module. Rather, the overall concept should be
understood and low level of cohesion should be avoided when modules are designed.
Coincidental
Procedural
Logical
Communicational
Functional
Sequential
Temporal
Low. | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | Cohesion Spectrum. | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . |. High
A module that performs a set of tasks that relate to each other loosely, if at all, is termed coincidentally
cohesive. A module that performs tasks that are logically related to each other (e.g., a module that produces
all output regardless of type) is logical cohesiveness. When the module contains tasks that are related by
the fact that, all must be executed within the same span of time , the module exhibits temporal cohesion.
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As an example of low cohesion, consider a module that performs error processing for an engineering
analysis package. The module is called, when computed data exceeds pre-specified bounds.
It performs the following tasks:
 Computes supplementary data based on original computed data
 Produces an error report on user’s workstation
 Performs follow-up calculations requested by user
 Updates a database
 Enables menu selection for subsequent processing
Although, the preceding tasks performed are loosely related, each is a separate function entity that might
best be performed as separate modules. Combining the function in single module can only serve the
likelihood of error propagation when a modification is made to any one of the processing tasks noted above.
Moderate levels of cohesion are relatively close to one another in the degree of module independence.
When processing elements of a module are related and must be executed in a specific order, procedural
cohesion exists.
When all processing elements concentrate on one area of data structure, communicational cohesion is
present. High cohesion is characterized by a module that performs one distinct procedural task. It is
unnecessary to determine the precise level of cohesion. Rather, it is important to strive for high cohesion
and recognize low cohesion so that software design can be modified to achieve greater functional
independence.
Q.6..
Ans.
Explain the various steps involved in system testing.
The steps involved in system testing are shown through the following diagram:
Each of these stages have a definite Entry and Exit criteria , Activities & Deliverables associated with it. In an Ideal
world you will not enter the next stage until the exit criteria for the previous stage is met. But practically this is not
always possible. The different stages in SDLC are explained below:.
Requirement Analysis
During this phase, the test team studies the requirements from a testing point of view to identify the testable
requirements. The Quality Assurance(QA) team may interact with various stakeholders (Client, Business Analyst,
Technical Leads, System Architects etc) to understand the requirements in detail. Requirements could be either
Functional (defining what the software must do) or Non Functional (defining system performance /security availability )
. The activities involved in this phase are as follows:





Identify types of tests to be performed.
Gather details about testing priorities and focus.
Prepare Requirement Traceability Matrix (RTM).
Identify test environment details where testing is supposed to be carried out.
Automation feasibility analysis (if required).
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Test Planning
This phase is also called Test Strategy phase. Typically , in this stage, a Senior QA manager will determine efforts
and cost estimates for the project and would prepare and finalize the Test Plan.
Test Case Development
This phase involves creation, verification and rework of test cases & test scripts. Test data , is identified/created and is
reviewed and then reworked as well.
Test Environment Setup
Test environment decides the software and hardware conditions under which a work product is tested. Test
environment set-up is one of the critical aspects of testing process and can be done in parallel with Test Case
Development Stage. Test team may not be involved in this activity if the customer/development team provides the test
environment in which case the test team is required to do a readiness check of the given environment.
Test Execution
During this phase the test team will carry out the testing based on the test plans and the test cases prepared. Bugs
will be reported back to the development team for correction and retesting will be performed.
Test Cycle Closure
Testing team will meet , discuss and analyze testing artifacts to identify strategies that have to be implemented in
future, taking lessons from the current test cycle. The idea is to remove the process bottlenecks for future test cycles
and share best practices for any similar projects in future.
Q.7.
Ans.
What are different types of documentation? Describe the importance of each type of documentation.
After successful testing of the system, all the work done during systems analysis and design is required to be
properly organized. The organized way of keeping records of all the documents programs and diagrams
prepared during all the phases of system development life cycle (SDLC) is called documentation. All types of
written instructions, which are prepared during SDLC and are required for operating and maintaining the
system, must be included in the documentation.
There are five major types of documentation. They are:
Program Documentation: Many companies discuss about programming documentation but fail to provide it
adequately. Before a program is developed, the system analyst should provide the programmer with the
require documentation. The logic in some programs is best described by a flowchart. Sometimes, decision
tables are most appropriate for explaining the logic of a program. Programmers should insist on proper
documentation before starting a job.
Operations Documentation: A well-designed system may run for a long time with little or no assistance
from the systems department. This can happen only when the system has been documented in a proper
way. For smooth running of the system, the console operator must have complete knowledge about the job,.
Providing the computer center with a set of operating instructions will not serve the purpose. The instructions
must be in a form readily accessible to the console operator and written in simple and understandable style.
A systems analyst must thoroughly discuss al the requirements of new jobs with their operations staff before
the job can be properly transferred.
User Documentation: Systems users require proper documentation to prepare a developing system and to
smoothly carry out existing ones. To meet this requirement, each system should have a manual that spells
everything the users must know to do their job correctly. Users require two general types of information;
completer details to handle each case of the system processes, and overall picture of the system so that they
can see their role in the total operation of the company.
Management Documentation: the documentation required by corporate management differs quite a lot
from that required by users. The systems designer must know the requirements of the management and
provide documentation to enable management to perform three functions:
i.
Evaluate progress on system development
ii.
Monitor existing systems
iii.
Understand the objectives and methods of new and existing systems.
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Management is primarily interested to know, in general, the systems’ overall objectives and basic operations.
A brief manual highlighting the key steps in each system may be prepared for management. Good mangers
have an exceptional ability to get to the root of a system and their experience should enable them to retrieve
information from, a systems summary or chart which may not be apparent to the systems analyst.
System Documentation: each phase in the system development cycle is accompanied by appropriate
documentation. The systems request, even if it is initially merit, verbally, eventually, must be written. It is
desirable for the client and a systems analyst to work jointly in writing the request since each van contribute
knowledge the other does not have. The written systems request is merely a statement of the user’s
problem.
Documentation also includes plans to test the system and convert from the old to the new one. The system
analyst must also provide a plan to train the personnel affected by the changes. During the life cycle of the
completed system, the system itself must provide documentation of, how well it is operating and
consequently should be designed to yield data about itself as a normal by-product.
Q.8.
Ans.
What is disaster/Recovery planning? Why is it important? Who initiates the planning?
DISASTER/RECOVERY PLANNING
What happens if your system burns out or if a disgruntled employee inflicts serious damage to it? How do
you recover? Where do you get your information? Studies have shown that a company’s very survival is
threatened within 48 hours after the loss of computer operations. Even a limited disruption or disaster can
result in substantial financial losses and even the threat of litigation. Direct financial losses result from the
loss of sales and production. Indirect financial losses include long-term loss of customer’s uncollected
receivables, and undetected fraud, Loss of control over vital data compromises data integrity and business
decisions.
Disaster/recovery planning is a means of addressing the concern for system availability by identifying
potential exposure, prioritizing applications, and designing safeguards that minimize loss if a disaster occurs.
It means that no matter what the disaster, you can cover. The business will survive because a
disaster/recovery plan allows quick recovery under the circumstances.
How does one guard against such losses? There are several alternatives. After an alternative has been
determined a decision must be made about the applications to be processed, the hardware to process the
applications, and what would be relocated after a disaster.
In disaster/recovery planning, management’s primary roll is to accept the need for contingency planning
select an alternative measure, and recognize the benefits that can be derived from establishing a
disaster/recovery plan. Top management should establish the disaster/recovery policy and commit corporate
support staff for its implementation. The user’s role is also important. The user’s responsibilities include the
following:
 Identifying critical applications, why they are critical, and how computer unavailability would affect the
department.
 Approving data protection procedures and determining how long and how well operations will continue
without the data.
 Funding the costs of backup.
The plan
When a disaster/recovery procedure is planned, several questions have to be answered:
How long would it take to rebuild the computer center or aspects of it?
What type of accommodation should we look for in a backup installation? How quickly is it available?
What equipment is needed to keep the corporation functioning?
How would reports be transmitted to the user? That is, is there going to be a telecommunications network or
simply a courier service?
What utilities (electric power, air conditioning etc) are required then a disaster occurs?
Would there be sufficient experienced staff available for proper recovery?
When their questions are answered and management gives its support for a disaster/recovery plan, the next
step is to initial a plan that involves four phases.
Appointment a disaster/recovery team and a team coordinator to develop the plan or procedure.
Prepare planning tasks.
Compile a disaster/recovery manual.
Dummy run to test the procedure.
The team
A disaster/recovery team should include a cross section of system designers, users and computer operators.
Under the leadership of a coordinator the team’s main functions are to organize the project, monitor progress
on the plan, and oversee its completion. The team meets periodically to ensure that the plan is kept up to
date, considers new vulnerabilities or exposures to loss, and implements new technology/ or procedures as
needed. More specifically the objectives of a disaster/recovery team include the following:
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


Secure backup sites for occupation and use.
Contract for hardware to meet minimum processing needs.
Supply working copies of all operating systems and applications programs to meet minimum
processing requirements.
 Supply communication facilities to make reports promptly available to the users.
 Supply consumables and administrative support.
Planning Task
Disaster/recovery planning tasks are prepared in a cycle, similar to that of system development. Briefly the
cycle entails the following:
o Definition phase sets the objectives of there disaster/recovery project.
o Requirements phase evaluates applications against disaster/recovery objectives, determines what is
to be included in the plan, and specifies priorities. The team takes inventory of the hardware, software,
telecommunications, backup and clerical procedures utilities and personnel assignments.
o Design phase evaluates design alternatives potential vendors, and prices and chooses the final
design.
Testing and implementation phase runs backup systems, compares results, and corrects errors. During
implementation procedures are written sites are prepared and maintenance plans are developed.
Q.9. What is information? What are the characteristics of information?
Ans. Information is data that has been processed into a form that is meaningful to the recipient and is having real
perceived value in current or prospective decision. It is data that has been put into meaningful and useful context.
Some kinds of information are more suitable than others. The value of information depends on the various levels at
which it is used. The time-frame for information can be historical or predictive. Historical information is used to design
alternative solutions and monitor performance levels. Predictive information is used to plan the tasks and processes
based on the input provided. Information may be expected or unexpected. Expected information is predicted through
surveys and analysis and unexpected information is the result of certain unforeseen happening. Information can be
processed in a detailed manner or in a summarized form.
The characteristics of information are as follows:
Source- Information can be collected from within the organization as well as from external sources taken into
consideration.
Scope- It depends on factors like reporting of collected information.
Accuracy- The data must be accurate else the conclusions derived on its basis would be incorrect.
Element of surprise- It should contain an element of surprise. Good information involves different views and better
perspectives that makes a difference.
Timeliness- The availability of information when needed is invaluable in making of managerial decisions.
Relevance- The information has to be valid and according to the need for being used in decision making.
Consistency- Information should be derived from data that displays a consistent pattern over a period.
Reliability- Information should be collected from the right sources so that it could be relied upon.
Impartiality- The information should not be biased.
Pertinence- Information should relate to matters that seem important to persons for whom it is meant.
Time frame- Time frame of information may relate to past, present and future and may cover the entire time-span.
Frequency- This refers to how often the information is needed and how often it needs to be updated.
Reduced uncertainty-Good information reduces unpredictable results and uncertainty.
Q.10. What are the different structured analysis tools. Explain.
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Ans. Structured analysis tools help the system analyst to document the system specification of a system to be built.
The main tools, which are used for the purpose, are given below.
1. Data Flow Diagram (DFD).
2. Data Dictionary.
3. Decision Trees.
4. Structured English.
5. Decision Tables.
6. Pseudocode
Data Flow Diagram(DFD)-Data Flow Diagram is a graphical representation of the logical flow of data. It helps in
expressing the system requirements in a simple and understandable form. It is also known as Bubble Chart.
A DFD consists of series of bubbles joined by lines representing the data flow in the system.
There are four main symbols used in a DFD
1 Square: it represents source/destination of a system data.
2.Arrow: It identifies data flow.
3. Circle: it represents a process that transforms incoming data flow into outgoing
data flow.
2. Open Rectangle: it represents a data store.
Data Dictionary: A data dictionary is a structured repository of data, about data.
It is a set of precise and accurate definition of all DFDs, Data elements and data structures. There are mainly
three items of data present in a data dictionary.
i)
Data Element: it is the smallest unit of data and cannot be decomposed further.
ii)
Data Structures: it is a group of elements handled as a unit. A data structure contains a number of
data elements as its fields.
iii) Data Flows and Data Stores: data flows are nothing but data structures in motion. Whereas data
stores are data structures at rest. Data stores are the locations where data structures are
temporarily stored.
Decision Tree
The logic of the process, which may not be very clear through DFD, can easily be represented using a graphic
representation, which looks like the branches of a tree, called decision tree. A decision tree has as many
branches as there are logical alternatives.
Structured English
The logic can be represented by using Structured English. It uses logical construction and imperative
sentences designed to carry out instructions for actions. It is most useful when sequences and loops in a
program must be taken into account.
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Decision table
Decision table is a matrix of rows and columns that shows conditions and actions. Decision rules state the
procedure to be followed when certain conditions exist. A decision table consists of 4 sections.
A condition stub at the upper left, a condition entry at the upper right, an action stub at the lower left, and an
action entry at the lower right.
Condition Stub
Condition Entry
Action Stub
Action Entry
Stub
Entry
A Decision Table
The questions are listed in the condition stub and the action stub outlines the action to be taken to meet each
condition. The condition entry part contains the answers to questions asked in the condition stub and the action
entry part indicates the appropriate action resulting from the answers to the conditions in the condition entry
quadrant.
Pseudocode
This expresses programming type logic in English language but it does not conform to any one programming
language. It may be used during and after the physical design to specify physical programming logic, but without
any actual coding.
Q.11. What is a DFD? What are its types? Specify the rules to construct a DFD.
Ans. Data Flow Diagram is a graphical representation of the logical flow of data. It helps in expressing the system
requirements in a simple and understandable form. It is also known as Bubble Chart.
There are four main symbols used in a DFD
1 Square: it represents source/destination of a system data.
2.Arrow: It identifies data flow.
3. Circle: it represents a process that transforms incoming data flow into outgoing
data flow.
1. Open Rectangle: it represents a data store.
Several rules of thumb are used in drawing DFDs:
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1. Processes should be named and numbered for easy reference. Each name should be representative of the process.
2. The direction of flow is from top to bottom and from left to right. Data traditionally flows from the source (upper left
corner) to the destination (lower right cornered), although they may flow back to a source. One way to indicate this is to
draw a long flow line back to the source. An alternative way is to repeat the source symbol as a destination. Since it is
used more than once in the DFD, it is marked with a short diagonal in the lower right.
3. When a process is exploded into 1ower'-level details, they are numbered.
4. The names of data stores, sources, and destinations are written in capital letters. Process and data flow names
have the first letter of each word capitalized.
Different types of DFDs are as follows:
It is common practice to draw the context-level data flow diagram first, which shows the interaction between the
system and external agents which act as data sources and data sinks. On the context diagram the system's
interactions with the outside world are modeled purely in terms of data flows across the system boundary. The context
diagram shows the entire system as a single process, and gives no clues as to its internal organization. This contextlevel DFD is next "exploded", to produce a Level 0 DFD that shows some of the detail of the system being modeled.
Data flow diagrams (DFDs) are categorized as either logical or physical. A logical DFD focuses on the business and
how the business operates. It describes the business events that take place and the data required and produced by
each event. On the other hand, a physical DFD shows how the system will be implemented as we mentioned before.
For example following DFD shows Order verification and Credit Check
Q.12. What is an interview? Specify its objectives. What are the different approaches to an interview?
Ans. An interview is "a formal face-to-face meeting, especially, one arranged for the assessment of the qualifications
of an applicant, as for employment or admission.... A conversation, as one conducted by a reporter, in which facts, or
statements are elicited from another." (The American Heritage Dictionary, Second College Edition)
The interview is the primary technique for information gathering during the systems analysis phases of a development
project. It is a skill which must be mastered by every analyst. The interviewing skills of the analyst determine what
information is gathered, and the quality and depth of that information. Interviewing, observation, and research are the
primary tools of the analyst.
The interview is a specific form of meeting or conference, and is usually limited to two persons, the interviewer and the
interviewee. In special circumstances there may be more than one interviewer or more than one interviewee in
attendance. In these cases there should still be one primary interviewer and one primary interviewee.
The objectives of an interview are:
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
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Gather information on the company
Gather information on the function
Gather information on processes or activities
Uncover problems
Conduct a needs determination
Verification of previously gathered facts
Gather opinions or viewpoints
Provide information
Obtain leads for further interviews
The different approaches/ ways of interviewing are as follows:
1. Formal approach- It is purely business like, which follows systematic logical plan with no idle talk or undue
friendship.
2. Legalistic approach- This approach follows a “thumbs rules” approach. The interviewer always goes “by the
book” or always follows rules.
3. Political approach- This approach is based on doing favors for people and acting in a prudent, shrewd and
diplomatic way.
4. Informal approach- This approach follows a plan but the interviewer is able to deviate as required without
losing control of the situation.
The best approach is one in which the interviewer is able to combine the above four approaches. The analyst can be
formal when necessary, legalistic when challenged, play politics in necessary situations and be informal in unknown
situations.
Interviewing musty be adopted throughout the system study because it can produce upto date information where as
other documentations are some-time old. During interview, the analyst can observe how the system runs as well as the
personality and attitude of the employee which is very important in many situations.
Q.13.What are the different design methodologies?
Ans. For designing the information systems, it is necessary for the system analyst to comprehend the flow of
information in an organization, how it assists in making decisions and how it is associated with the objectives of the
organization. To develop a good design, the analyst has to choose a good design methodology. A good methodology
is further dependent on the type of application, time available and availability of various other resources. The different
design methodologies are as follows:
a: Structured design- It is a data-flow based methodology that helps in identifying the input/output from the system. In
this methodology, the system specifications act a basis for graphically representing the flow of data and sequence of
processes involved in software development with the help of data flow diagrams (DFDs). After developing the DFD, the
next step is to develop the structured flowcharts which define the modules of software development and the
relationships between them.
b: IPO charts- This is the acronym used for Input-Process-Output chart. This charts shows in three columns, the
inputs and outputs from the system and the process used to provide the output. The input defines the data external to
the process. Typically this is a file composed of related fields. The output is typically a new data, a revised file or a
report. After the inputs and outputs have been determined, the analyst finds out the processing requirements.
c: HIPO charts-this is a Hierarchy plus Input-Process-Output chart. It is a graphic technique used to explain a system.
A sequence of drawings explaining the system, beginning with overview diagrams and then moving further to
descriptive diagrams and precise functions is made. It follows structured approach that offers top-down approach for
refinement of module-sequence.
d: Structured walkthrough- A study of results from the investigation and the models that are built on the basis of
these results are defined as structured walkthrough. The purpose of this process is to identify any mistakes or issues.
e: Structured Analysis and Design Technique(SADT)- This is a method where large and complex systems are
developed. This technique follows a structured approach to analyze and design various system activities, date required
in each activity and the inter-relationships. A specific notation is followed to communicate the analysis and design
results amongst the departments of a company.
f: Pseudocode- It is an approach which uses English words just as Structured English , however unlike the latter, it
can be coded like any other programming language. It has three main structures: selection, iteration and sequence.
g: Entity Relationship(E-R) model-This is a database-design technique which shows the relationships between
different entities. The relationships could be: one to one, one to many and many to many. After the E-R model has
been made, the analyst determines the semantic synonyms and homonyms.
Q.14. What is conversion? What are the different methods of conversion?
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When the final system is ready to go there needs to be a method of converting from the old system to the new system.
Conversion is the method to replace the old system with the new one. A conversion plan includes a description of all
activities that must occur during the implementation of a new system. This can be done in one of the following four
ways:
Parallel conversion
Parallel conversion involves keeping the old system running alongside the new system for the first couple of weeks or
months after the introduction of the new system. This means that any problems with the new system will not affect the
continuation of the business. The problem with parallel implementation is that it costs more to run both systems and it
also means data has to be entered twice which takes more time and is liable to errors.
Direct conversion
This involves taking the old system offline and putting the new system online within a day or over a weekend or holiday
period. This is cheap but also quick, allowing the new features to be put to use immediately. However if there is a
problem with the new system there isn't anything to fall back on.
Pilot conversion
A pilot conversion involves using the new system in only a small section of the company, for example a single
department, branch or office. This allows any bugs to be found without a large effect on the company as a whole.
When the system is approved, it is implemented in the entire organization all at once or stage by stage.
Phased conversion
This involves taking offline parts of the old system and replacing them with the corresponding parts of the new system.
The actually conversion from the old parts of the system to the new parts may be either parallel or direct. This provides
a compromise between parallel and direct conversion. This approach is advantageous as it has the ability to come up
with improved and more accurate estimates of the amount of work to be undertaken, thereby avoiding large
contingencies for risk management.
Q.15.What are the training strategies and methods?
Ans. The success of the training sessions can be ensured and increased in many ways:
a. The company must hire high quality IT personnel.
b. The hiring process should be fast, focused, decisive and candid.
c. The employees should be continuously educated.
d. Employees should be trained about the latest information.
e. The training courses should be aimed at providing to employees with the skills to input information and generate
reports.
f. Training should focus on suppressing any negative feelings amongst the users. The users should be motivated to
reap out the advantages from training.
g. Training is more productive if the end-users are trained by their peers. Such trainings are less technical on aspects
of CBIS and concentrate more on the daily tasks which is what is needed.
h. Industrial organizations with fewer resources for in-house research and development should focus on projects in
conjunction with non-profit research institutions.
i. Refresher courses or new training programs should be arranged periodically lest the employees may forget what
they had learnt earlier.
j . Just-in-time training should be provided. The monolithic and instructor-led courses must be divided into several
chunks to be made available when required by users.
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k. Employees should be provided with web and computer-based training also.
l. The training strategies should be determined by the trainer and the trainee. The analyst ensures that the
person/persons whose work is affected by the new system is properly trained.
Q.16. What is input design? Specify its objectives? What are the data entry methods and the procedures used
for efficient input?
Ans. Input is the raw data that is processed to give the output. To have a good quality output, it is imperative that the
input should also be of good quality. During input design, the developers must consider the various input devices such
as desktop PC, Web-enabled cell-phone, pager, MICR, OCR, etc. the following objectives should be met while
designing input:
a: Effectiveness- The input-design must serve a specific purpose.
b: Accuracy- If the forms are completed accurately, the error rates decline considerably.
c: Ease of use-The input designed should be straightforward. It should facilitate an easy entry of data.
d: Consistency- The similar data should be grouped from one application to the next.
e. Simplicity- The data should be uncluttered.
f: Attractiveness- It should appear attractive to the user.
The data entry methods that could be used are as follows:
a: Batch-input method- Under this method, data is input in batches, one batch at a time. The entry of data is done
over a period of time.
b: Online data-entry method- In this method data entry and its validation is immediate.
c: Source data automation- In this method swipe scanners and magnetic data strips are used. The common
examples are: bar code readers, ATMs,MICR,OCR,etc.
The input procedures used must be efficient. The input-data collected must be error-free and timely. To ensure this,
following points are emphasized:
a: Reduce input volume-For this purpose, the following guidelines are emphasized:
i.
Only necessary data should be input
ii.
Data which can be calculated or which can be retrieved from other f ields should not be input
iii.
Constant data should also not be input
iv.
Codes should be used
b: Reduce input errors- Fewer errors in data mean better-quality data. Following are the eight types of datavalidation checks:
i.
Sequence
ii.
Range
iii.
Existence
iv.
Data-type
v.
Validity
vi.
Reasonableness
vii.
Batch controls
Q.17. What is output design? What are its objectives? What should be the considerations to select output
media? What are the ways in which output can be biased and what are the ways in which can be avoided?
Ans. Computer output is the most important and direct source of information to the user. Efficient, intelligible output
design should improve the system’s relationships with the user and help in decision making. A major form of output
is a hard copy from the printer. Printouts should be designed around the output requirements of the user. The
following media devices are available for providing computer-based output:
1. MICR readers
2. Line, Matrix and Page printers
3. Computer output microfilm
4. CRT screen display
5. Graph Plotters
6. Audio response
The objectives for an output design are as follows:
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a. The output design should be such which serves the intended purpose and minimizes the production of
unwanted output.
b. It should meet the end-user requirements.
c. Should deliver the appropriate quantity of output
d. Output should be directed to the right person only
e. It should be available on time for taking good decisions
f. It should be in appropriate format for the end-users to understand.
The following points should be kept in mind while selecting an output technology:
a: Who will be using the output?
b: what is the number of people needing the output?
c: Where will the output be required?
d: What is the required speed?
e: What is the frequency with which the output will be accessed?
f: How long should the output be kept?
g: What are the maintenance costs?
h: What are the space, noise, cabling and other environmental constraints?
Following are the ways in which the output can be biased:
1. Information sorting- The way information is sorted by the system analyst influences the decision of the
decision makers.
2. Setting of acceptable limits- The level of acceptable limits set by the analyst may bias the output.
3. Choice of graphics- Bias may occur in the size of graphics, in color and the scale used to draw a graphics.
Methods for avoiding bias are as follows:
1. Work with end users so that they can point out the bias.
2. Be aware of the source of bias.
3. Use interactive design of output for greater flexibility
4. Train end-users to depend on multiple outputs for the conduction of reality tests on system output.
Q.18.What are forms and their types? What are the guidelines for designing a good form?
Ans. A business document that contains some predefined data and may include some areas where additional data are
to be filled in. An instance of a form is typically based on one database record. Form can be considered as the basic
business tool (whether printed or electronic) for collecting and transmitting information. It is the catalyst for getting
things done and keeps a record of what was done. Forms must be easy to read and write and must appear easy to
use.
The guidelines for designing a good form are as follows:
1. Keep the screen simple- The form should be designed in a proper sequence i.e. from left to right and from top to
bottom. Information such as heading, instructions, etc. Should be grouped logically. Clear captions should be given.
2.Meet the intended people- According to the needs of different people, a system analyst has to define different types
of forms.
3. Assure accurate completion- The forms should be accurate and ensure that people act correct information so that
error rates could be reduced.
4. Keep forms attractive- The aim should be to make attractive forms whether printed or electronic.
5. Facilitate movement-In online forms, it should be easy to navigate from one screen to another.
6. Controlling forms- Controlling business forms is an important task and usually organizations have a business
specialist that does this job.
The forms are of the following types:
Flat forms- A flat form is a single copy form prepared manually or by a machine and printed on paper. It is easiest to
design, print and reproduce. For additional copies of forms, carbon-paper needs to be inserted. It uses less volume
and is inexpensive.
Snapout forms- These forms have an original copy and several copies with one-time carbon paper interleaved
between them. The copies are perforated at the margin for tearing out. Because of perforation and the shorter carbon,
the forms can be easily snapped out after completion.
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Fanfold form- These are multiple-unit forms joined together in a continuous strip with perforation between each pair of
forms. The fanfold is the least expensive construction for large volume use.
NCR paper-These are carbonless papers. They use two chemical coatings , one on the face and the other n the back
of a sheet of paper. When pressure is applied, the two capsules interact and create an image.
Q.19. What are the different types of software testing. Explain.
Ans. The different types of software testing are as follows:
Unit testing is the process of testing a singular item of software. An example would be a window/form which allows a
user to choose two ways of launching the application. Option A will launch exe A whereas Option B will launch exe B.
The single form can be launched on its own ( normally by the developer ) and the function of launching each option
can be confirmed before adding the code to the main application.
System testing is the first time at which the entire system can be tested against the system specification. The
specifications are defined within the business analysis documentation defining the programs purpose.
Functional Testing is the process of confirming the functionality of the application. Generally this form of testing can
be scripted directly from the menu options of the application.
Integration Testing is often set up with it’s own testing team who only perform integration testing. The main purpose
of this type of testing is to check if the new software interferes with any other functionality of any other software which
is running on the companies machines..
Dynamic testing confirms that a deliverable – typically some software – functions according to its specifications. Test
scripts and recorded results should be agreed within an acceptance plan This testing can be based on two different
aspects. Black box and White box testing
Black box testing is the process of testing a function without having access to the code which is converting
the data. The name ‘Black Box’ comes from not being able to see how the function works
White box testing on the other hand allows the tester to see the code which is converting the data.
Consequently the tester can write tests to include data which will ‘trip up the code’.
Performance testing is the most effective way to gauge an application or an environment’s capacity and scalability.
This type of testing must be automated and record the systems response times to a simulation of users logging onto
the system.
Stress/Load testing involves running the system under heavy loading by simulating users and functionality’s up to a
point where the maximum loads are anticipated from the design specification documentation.
Volume testing submits the system to a large volume of data. Normally this is automated and consists of multiple
processes being run simultaneously increasing the size of transactions files being processed.
Limit Testing -At least one test should be developed for each of the documented system limits Such tests are
designed to investigate how the system will react to data which is maximal or minimal in the sense of attaining some
limit either specified within the system specification or the user guide.
Disaster Recovery Testing -This is clearly a vital area of testing for safety critical and similar systems. The systems
reactions to failures of all sorts might need to be tested. During this testing we can identify any corruptions and
potential down times during system failure. .
User acceptance testing is probably the most known term of testing by non testers. Consequently if the testing
structure and stages have not been performed correctly, users will tend to include and lump all aspects of testing into
the User Acceptance Testing stage. User Acceptance Testing includes the processes and functionality performed by
the users who will be using the system on a day to day basis. The tests will follow the processes from end to end with
a fully functional and complete system. Additionally and the more difficult to identify; this phase will also include all the
strange and wonderful things the users will attempt to do with the software even though the software was never
designed to do these things.
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Equivalence class partitioning-A software testing technique which identifies a small amount of input values that
invokes as many different input conditions as possible.
Boundary Value Analysis-A test data selection technique in which values are chosen to lie along data extremes.
Boundary values include maximum, minimum, just inside/outside boundaries, typical values, and error values.
Compatibility Testing / Data Migration-Tests are made to probe where the new system does not subsume the
facilities and modes of use of the old system where it was intended to do so. In these cases dependent on the system
being tested, a parallel run should be considered so that data from the old system can be directly compared to the new
system.
Prepared By: Vaishnoo Maa Computers, SCO 145, Chotti Baradari, Patiala.
Ph. 0175-2205100, 2215100