Download Глоссарий по теоретической фонетике

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РЕСПУБЛИКИ КАЗАХСТАН
ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ имени ШАКАРИМА г. СЕМЕЙ
Документ СМК 3 уровня
УМКД
УМКД
Учебно-методические материалы
по дисциплине
«Основы теории изучаемого
языка»
Редакция № 2 от
_________
УМКД 042-14-5-03.01.20.08 /032013
УЧЕБНО-МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЙ КОМПЛЕКС ДИСЦИПЛИНЫ
«Основы теории изучаемого языка»
для специальности 050207 «Переводческое дело»
УЧЕБНО-МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ МАТЕРИАЛЫ
Семей - 2013
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СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
1. Глоссарий
2. Лекции
Практические и лабораторные занятия
3. Курсовая работа и дипломный проект
Самостоятельная работа студента
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1. ГЛОССАРИЙ
В настоящем УММ использованы следующие термины с соответствующими переводами
определениями:
1.1 Глоссарий
По дисциплине «Лексикология современного английского языка
1.1 Definition – определение, дефиниция, анықтама
1 2 Word meaning – значение слов, сөз мағынасы
1.3 direct meaning of the word – прямое значение слова , сөздің тура мағынасы
1.4 denotative meaning of the word – денотативное значение слова, сөздің денотативті
мағынасы
1.5 connotative meaning of the word – коннотативное значение слова, сөздің коннотативті
мағынасы
1.6 contextual meaning of the word – контекстное значение, контекстік мағына
1.7 morpheme – морфема
1.8 morphemic structure of the word – морфемная структура слова, сөздің морфемалық
құрылымы
1.9 semasiology - семасиология
1.10 semantic component – семантический компонент, семантикалық компонент
1.11 special lexicology – частная лексикология, арнайы лексикология
1.12 general lexicology – общая лексикология, жалпы лексикология
1.13 contrastive lexicology – сопоставительная лексикология, салғастырмалы лексикология
1.14 comparative lexicology – сравнительная лексикология, салыстырмалы лексикология
1.15 lexical valency – лексическая валентность, лексикалық валенттілік
1.16 paradigm - парадигма
1.17 paradigmatic relation – пададигматическая связь, парадигмалық байланыс
1.18 syntagmatic relation – синтагматическая связь, синагмалық байланыс
1.19 affix – аффикс
1.20 suffix – суффикс, жұрнақ
1.21 prefix – префикс
1.22 infix- инфикс
1.23 derivational affixes – словообразующий аффикс, сөз тудурушы аффикс
1.24 functional affixes – функциональный аффикс, сөз түрлендіруші аффикс
1.25 root morpheme – корневая морфема, түбір морфема
1.26 stem – основа, негіз
1.27 native words – исконно английские слова, ағылшын тілінің төл сөздері
1.28 borrowed words – заимствованные слова, кірме сөздер
1.29 word formation – словообразование, сөз жасам
1.30 word composition – словосложение, сөздерді біріктіру
1.31 conversion – конверсия
1.32 back formation – обратный порядок слов, кері сөз тәртібі
1.33 litotes - литота
1.34 euphemism - эвфемизм
1.35 irony - ирония
1.36 hyperbole - гипербола
1.37 metaphor - метафора
1.38 metonymy – метонимия
1.39 synecdoche - синекдоха
1.40 homonym – омоним
1. 41.synonym - синоним
1.42. antonym - антоним
1.43 polysemantic – многозначный, көп мағыналы
1.44 connotation – коннотация
1.45 lexico-grammatical variant – лексико-грамматический вариант, лексико-грамматикалық вариант
и
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1.46 idiom - идиома
1.47 cliche - клише
1.48 familiar quotations – крылатые выражения, қанатты сөздер
1.49 proverbs – пословицы, мақалдар
1.50 the deterninant – определяемое, айқындалушы
1.51 the determinatum- определяющий, айқындаушы
1.52 synonymic dominant – синонимическая доминанта, синонимдік доминант
1.53 learned words – книжные слова, кітаби сөздер
1.54 informal vocabulary – неформальная лексика, бейформальді лексика
1.55 functional style – функциональный стиль, функционалді стиль
1.56 poetic style – поэтический стиль, поэтикалық стиль
1.57 Indo-European origin – Индо-европейское происхождение, шығу тегі Үнді-европалық
1.58 Common Germanic – общее германское происхождение, шығу тегі жалпы германдық
1.59 compound word – сложные слова, кұрделі сөздер
1.60 set expressions – устойчивые выражения, тұрақты тіркестер
1.61 phraseological units – фразеологические единицы, фразеологиялық бірліктер
1.62 phraseological fusions – фразеологические сращения, фразеологиялық тұтастық
1.63 phraseological combinations – фразеологические сочетания, фразеологиялық тіркестер
1.64 semantic change of words – семантическое изменение значения слова, сөз мағынасының семантикалық
тұрғыдан өзгеруі
1.65 miner types of word formation – непродуктивные способы словообразования, сөз жасамның өнімсіз
тәсілдері
1.66 shortening – сокращение. Қысқарған сөздер
1.67 abbreviation – аббревиатура
1.68 semantic triangle – семантический треугольник, семантикалық үшбұрыш
1.69 free forms – свободные формы, еркін тұлғалар
1.70 bound forms – байлаулы тұлғалар
1.71 sound imitation – звукоподражание, еліктеуіш сқздер
1.72 Genaralization of word meaning – расширение значения слова, сөз мағынасының
кеңеюі
1.73 specialization of word meaning – сужение значения слова, сөз мағынасының тарылуы
1.74 lexical unit – лексическая единица, лексикалық бірлік
1.75 Affixation - аффиксация
1.76 functional change – функциональный переход, сөз мағынасының қызмет бірлігі бойынша адмасуы
1.77 taboo – табу
1.78 non-productive suffixs – непродуктивные суффиксы, өнімсіз жұрнақтар
1.79 productive suffixes – продуктивные суффиксы, өнімді жұрнақтар
1.80 inversion – инверсия
1.81 lexicography – лексикография
1.82 synchronic – синхронический, синхрондық
1.83 diachronic – диахронический, диахрониялық
1.84 inflection – флексия
1.85 paronyms – паронимы
1.86 contextual synonyms – контекстные синонимы, контекстік синонимдер
1.87 stylistic synonyms – стилистические синонимы, стильдік синонимдер
1.88 ideographical synonyms – идиографические синонимы, идиографиялық синонимдер
1.89 Linguistic – лингвистический, тілдік
1.90 Extralinguistic – экстралингвистический, тілден тысқары
1.91 archaic words - архаизмы
1.92 dialects - диалекты
1.93 word stock – словарный состав, сөздік қор
1.94 stylistically colored words – стилистически окрашенные слова, стильдік бояулы сөздер
1.95 irony - ирония
1.96 simile – сравнение, теңеу
1.97 .slang - слэнг
1.98 .explanatory dictionary – толковый словарь, түсіндірме сөздік
1.99 dictionaries of word-frequency – словарь частотности, жиілік сөздігі
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1.100 specialized dictionary- специальный словарь, арнайы сөздік
1.101 phraseological dictionary – фразеологический словарь, фразеологиялық сөздік
1.102 syntagmatic level – синтагматический уровень, синтагмалық деңгей
1.103 paradigmatic level – парадигматический уровень, парадигмалық деңгей
1.104 historical etymology – историчекая этимология, тприхи этимология
1.105 folk etymology – народная этимология, халық этимологиясы
1.106 onomasiology - ономасиология
1.108 etymological dictionary – этимологический словарь, этимологиялық сөздік
1.109 linguistic dictionaries – лингвистический словарь, лингвистикалық сөздік
1.110 Neologisms – неологизмы, неологизмдер
1.111 Vulgarisms – варваризмы, варваризмдер
1.112 encyclopedic dictionary – энциклопедический словарь, энциклопедиялық сөздік
1.113 semantic integrity – семантическая целостность, семантикалық тұтастық
1.114 indivisibility – неделимость, бөлінбейтін
1.116 ready-made units – готовые к употреблению единицы, даяр қалпында қолдану
1.117 word equivalent – эквивалент слова, сөзге эквивалентті
1.118 Standard English – стандартный английский язык, стандаррты ағылшын тілі
1.119 American English- американский английский язык, американ ағылшын тілі
1.120 semantic field – семантическое поле, мемантикалық өріс
Глоссарий по теоретической фонетике английского языка
1.121 sound – звук - дыбыс
1.122 phoneme – фонема - фонема
1.123 consonant phoneme – согласная фонема – дауыссыз фонема
1.124. vowel phoneme – гласная фонема - дауысты фонема
1.125 The principles of vowel classification – принципы классификации гласных –
1.126 6дауыстыларды жіктеу принциптері
1.127 The principles consonant classification - принципы классификации согласных –
дауыссыздарды жіктеу принциптері
1.128 articulatory system – артикуляторная система - артикуляторлық жүйе
1.129 Phonemic component - фонемный компонент - фонемалық компонент
1.130 Syllabic component - слоговый компонент - буын компоненті
1.131 Accentual component - акцентный компонент – екпін компоненті
1.132 Intonation component - интонационный компонент – интонациялық
компонент
1.133 Articulation basis - артикуляторная база – артикуляторлық база
1.134 Syllabic structure – слоговая структура - буын құрылымы
1.135 Syllabic and non-syllabic phonemes - слогообразующие и
неслогообразующие фонемы – буын жасауға қабілетті және буын жасауға
қабілетсіз фонемалар
1. 136 An open syllable – открытый слог – ашық буын
1.137 A closed syllable – закрытый слог – тұйық буын
1.138 A covered type of syllable – прикрытый тип слога
1.139 An uncovered type of syllable – неприкрытый тип слога
1.140 Syllable formation – слогообразование – буын жасау
1.141 Syllable division – слогоделение – буынға бөлу
1.142 phonetic syllable – фонетический слог – фонетикалық буын
1.143 orfhographic syllable – орфографический слог – орфографиялық буын
1.144 Modification of phonemes – чередование фонем – дыбыстардың алмасуы
1.145 Word accent – ударение слова – сөз екпіні
1.146 Degrees of word accent – степени ударения слова – сөз екпінінің деңгейлері
1.147 Place of word stress – место ударения слова – сөз екпінінің орны
1.148 Intonation structure – интонационная структура – интонациялық құрылым
1.149 Functions of intonation structure - функции интонационной структуры –
интонациялық құрылымның қызметі
1.150 Constitutive function – конститутивная функция – құрылымдық қызметі
1.151 Distinctive function - различительная функция – айырымдық қызметі
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1.152 recognitive function – рекогнитивная функция – рекогнитивтік қызмет
1.153 Pronunciation – произношение - айтылуы
1.154 accomodation – ассомодация (взаимное приспособление разнотипных слогов) –
дыбыстардың бір-бірінің әсерінен өзгеруі
1.155 acoustic – акустический, слуховой - акустикалық
1.156 adaptation – адаптация - адаптация
1.157 adjacent sounds – смежные, примыкающие звуки – жанасқан дыбыстар
1.158 affricate – смычно-щелевой чсогласный звук – шұғыл-ызың дауыссыз
1.159 allophone – аллофон, качественный вариант фонемы – дыбыстың айтылу
варианты
1.160 alveolar – альвеолярный, десенный - альвеолярлық
1.161 aspirate – произносить с придыханием – леппен айту
1.162 aspiration – аспирация, придыхание – леп
1.163 ssimilation – ассимиляция, уподобление - үндесу
1.164 back advanced – задный продвинутый вперед (к центру) – ауыз қуысының
артынан ортасына қарай жылжуы
1.165 backlingual – заднеязычный – тіл арты
1.166 bilabial – губно-губной - еріндік
1.167 cavity – полость - қуыс
1.168 cluster of consonants – скопление согласных – дауыссыздырдың жинақталуы
1.169 Cockney pronunciation – просторечное произношение восточного Дондона – шығыс
Лондондағы жергідікті сөйлеу мәнері
1.170 collocation – словосочетание – сөз тіркесі
1.171 colloquial style – разговорный стиль – ауызекі сөйлеу тілі
1.172 constrictive – шелевой - ызың
1.173 contextual assimilation – ассимилятивное явление в контексте – контекстегі
дыбыстардың үндесуі
1.174 dental – зубной, дентальный - тістік
1.174 devoicing – оглушение звонких согласных – ұяң дауыссыздардың
қатаңдануы
1.175 disyllabic – двусложный - екібуынды
1.176 elision – элизия, выпадение гласных – дыбыстардың тұсіп қалуы
1.177 exhalation – выдыхание, экспирация – демді шығару
1.178 expiratory – выдыхательный - дем шығару
1.178 forelingual – переднеязычный - тіл алды
1.179 fortis – сиьный звук – қарқынды дыбыс
1.180 glottal – гортанный – көмейлік
1.181 hard palate – твердое небо - қатты таңдай
1.182 incomplete plosion – неполный взрыв, потеря взырыва – шұғылдықтың
жоғалуы
1.183 inhale – вдыхать, производить вдох – дем алу
1.184 inspire – вдыхать, производить вдох – дем алу
1.185 inspiration – вдыхание, вдох – дем алу
1.186 interdental – межзубной – тіс аралық
1.187 intermediate – промежточный - орталық
1.188 labial – лабиальный, губной - еріндік
1.189 labio-dental – губно-зубной – тіс пен еріндік
1.190 laryngal – гортанный – көмейлік
1.191 larynx – гортань - көмей
1.192 lateral – латеральный, боковой - бүйір
1.193 lax – слабый, ненапряженный - әлсіз
1.194 lenis – слабый звук - әлсіз дыбыс
1.195 long parentheses – длинные вставки – ұзын қыстырмалар
1.196 manner of production – спосб образования – дауыссыздардың жасалуы
1.197 monosyllabic – односложный – бір буынды
1.198 mouth cavity – полость рта – ауыз қуысы
1.199 nasal cavity – носовая полость – мұрын қуысы
1.200 nostrils – ноздри – мұрын жолы
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1.201 nucleus – ячейка, ядро - ядро
1.202 obstruction – препятствие, преграда - кедергі
1.203 occlusive – смычный - шұғыл
1.204 occurrence – употребительность - қолданылу
1.205 off-glide – отзвук – дыбыс жаңғырығы
1.206 on-glide- призвук - үндесу
1.207 palatalization – смягчение согласных – жауыссыздардың жұмсаруы
1.208 pitch – высота основного тона – негізгі тонның биіктігі
1.209 place of obstruction – место образования преграды – кедергінің жасалу орны
1.210 place of articulation – место артикуляции – дауыстың жасалу орны
1.211 plosive – взрывной согласный – шұғыл дауыссыз
1.212 prominence – выделеннсть(акустическая) - ерекшелену
1.213 rapid style – беглый стиль произношения – тез сөйлеу мәнері
1.214 received pronunciation – общепринятое произношение – жалпы қабылданған
айтылым
1.215 recessive tendency – рецессивная тенденция – рецессивті тенденция
1.216 reciprocal assimilation – двусторонняя ссимиляция – екі жақты үндестік
1.217 reduction – редукция - қысаңдану
1.218 retracted position – оттянутое положение языка – тілдің созылыңқы түрі
1.219 rhyme – рифма - рифма
1.220 rhythm – ритм - ырғақ
1.221 sonority – звучность, сонорность - үнділік
1.222 syllabic – слоговый - буындық
1.223 tempo of speech – темп речи – сөйлеу жылмамдығы
1.224 tense – натянутый, упругий, напряженный – тартылған, қысымыды
1.225 unvoiced sounds – глухиезвуки – қатаң дауыссыз
1.226 utterance – высказывание – сөйлем
1.227 uvula – небный язычок – таңдай тілшігі
1228 .velar – велярный, заденебный – таңдай арты
1.229 vocal chords – голосовые связки – дыбыс желбезегі
1.230 voiced – звонкий - ұяң
1.231 voiceless – глухой - қатаң
1.232 windpipe – дыхательное горло, трахея - кеңірдек
1.233 word stress – словесное ударение – сөз екпіні
1.234 X-ray photography – рентгенография - рентген
Глоссарий по теоретической грамматике английского языка
1.235 Adjective- Прилагательное, сые есім
1.236 .Adverb of manner- наречие образа действия, қимыл-сын үстеуі
1.237 .Adverbial clause of cause- придаточное предложения причины, сабақтас сөйлем
1.238 .Adverbial clause of time- придаточное предложения времени, мезгіл бағыныңқылы сабақтас сөйлем
1.239 Adverbial modifier of place- обстоятельство места, мекен пысықтауыш
1.240 Adverbial modifier of time- обстоятельство времени, мезгіл пысықтауыш
1.241 Affirmative- утвердительная форма, хабарлы сөйлем
1.242 .Appendix- приложение, қосымша
1.243 .Appropriate- соответствующий, сәйкес селетін
1.244 .Aspect- вид, түр
1.245 Attributive clause- определительное придаточное предложение, анықтауыш мәнді сабақтас сөйлем
1. 246 Auxilary verb- вспомогательный глагол, көмекші есімдік
1.247 Blanks- пустые места, пробелы, бос орын
1.249 Borrow-заимствовать, өзге тілден сөз қабылдау
1.250 .Brackets-скобки, жақша
1.251 Case-падеж, септік
1.252 Class noun- имя существительное, обозначающее отдельный предмет, жалпы зат есім
1.253 Collective noun- имя существительное,собирательное, жинақтық зат есім
1. 254 .Colloquial-разговорный, ауыз екі сөйлеу тілі
1.255 Common noun-нарицательное имя существительное, жалпы есім
1.256 .Comparative-сравнительный, салыстырмалы
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1.257 Compare-сравнивать, салыстыру
1.258 Complete-закончить,завершить, аяқтау
1.259 .Completed action-завершенное действие, аяқталған іс-қимыл
1.260 Compound-составное слово, кұрделі сөз
1.261 Condition- условие, шарт
1.262 .Conditional sentence- условное предложение, шартты сөйлем
1.263 Conjunction- союз, жалғау
1.264 Connecting adverb- наречие,служащее для соединения, жалғаулықты үстеу
1.265 Consequence – следствие, салдар
1.266 Consonant- согласная, дауыссыз
1267 Correct- правильный, дұрыс
1.268 .Corresponding- соответствующий, сәйкес келетін
1.269 Countable noun- исчисляемое существительное, санауға келмейтін
1.270 .Customary action- обычное действие, әдеттегі іс-қимыл
1.271 Defining- определительный, айқындаушы
1.272 Degree-мера, степень, деңгей
1.273 Degrees of comparison- степени сравнения, салыстыру шырайлары
1.274 Demonstrative-указательный, сілтеу
1.275 .Denote- обозначать, білдіру
1.276 Derivative- производный, туынды
1.277 Direct speech-прямая речь, төл сөз
1.278 .Ending- окончание, жалғау
1.279 .Example- пример, мысал
1.280 Express- выражат ь, білдіру
1.281 .Expression-выражение, словосочетание, сөз тіркесі
1.282 .Extend- продолжить, жалғастыру
1.283 .Feminine- женский род, әйел тегі
1.284 Fiction- художественная литература, көркем әдебиет
1.285 Formation- образование, жасалу
1.286 Future- будущий, будущее время, келер шақ
1.287 General question-общий вопрос, жалпы сұрақ
1.289 .Habitual- привычный, әдеттекгі
1.290 .Imply- подразумевать, білдіру
1.291 .Indefinite- неопределенны, белгізіздік
1.292 Indirect speech- косвенная речь, төлеу сөз
1.293 .Insert- вставить, кіріктіру
1.294 .Italic type-курсивный шрифт, курсивті жазу
1.295 Interrogative – вопросительный, сұраулы
1.296 Intransitive verb- непереходный глагол, салт етістік
1.297 .Introduce- вводить, енгізу
1.298 Inversion- инверсия, обратный порядок слов в предложении, кері сөз тәртібі
1.299 Irregular verb-неправильный глагол, бұрыс етістік
1.300 Join- соединить,объединить, біріктіру
1.301 Limited- ограниченный, шекткулі
1.303 Masculine- мужской род, ер тегі
1.304 .Meaning-значение, мағына
1.305 Measure-мера, өлшем
1.306 Mind-обратить внимание, назар аудару
1.307 .Missing- недостающи й, түсіп қалған
1.308 .Negative- отрицательный, қарсылықты
1.309 .Negative sentence- отрицательное предложение, қарсылықты сөйлем1.310 Nominative case- падеж, соответствующий именительному, атау септік
1.311 Noun- существительное, зат есім
1.312 Number- число, сан
1.313 Object clause- дополнительное придаточное предложение, толықтауыш мәнді сабақтас сөйлем
1.314 .Objective pronouns- местоимение в объектном падеже, табыс септігіндегі есімдік
1.315 Observe- соблюдать, байқау, қадағалау
1.316 Omit- пропускать, опускать, түсіріп тастау
1.317 Opinion- мнение, суждение, пікір
1.318 Order- приказ, бұйрық
1.319 Particle-частица, демеулік
1.320 Passive voice- страдательный залог, ырықсыз етіс
1.321 Past- прошедший, өткен
1.322 Pattern- модель , үлгі
1.324 Pecularity- особенность, ерекшелік
1.325 Permanent action- постоянное действие,факт, тұрақты іс-қимыл
1.326 .Person- лицо, жақ
1.327 Persona l- личный, жіктеу есімдігі
1.328 Plural-множественное число, көптік тұлғада тұрған
1.329 .Positive sentence- утвердительное предложение, хабарлы сөйлем
1.330 Possessive- притяжательный, ілік септігі
1.331 .Posterior- последующий, кейін келген
1.332 .Prefix- приставка
1.333 Preposition- предлог
1.334 Prepositional object- предложное дополнение, жанама толықтауыш
1.335 Present- настоящее время, щсы шақ
1.336 Previous- предыдущий, алдынанг келген
1.337 Principal clause-главное предложение, салалас сөйлем
1.338 .Prior- предшествующий, алдынан келген
1.339 Proceed-предшествовать, алдынан келу
1.340 Productive-продуктивный, өнімді
1.341 .Pronoun- местоимение, есімдік
1.342 Proper noun- собственное имя существительное, жалқы есім
1.343 Quantity- количество, сан
1.344 .Question- вопрос, сұрақ
1.345 Real condition-реальное условие, шынайы жағдай
1.346 Reciprocal- взаимный, өзара
1.347 Reflexive- возвратный, өздік
1.348 Relations-взаимо-отношение, өзара қарым қатынас
1.349 Render-передавать, білдіру
1.350 Repeated action- повторяющееся действие, қайталанып келген іс-қимыл
1.351 .Replace- заменить, алмастыру
1.352 Reported speech-косвенная речь, төлеу сөз
1.353 Request-просьба, өтініш
1.354 .Required- требуемый, талап етілген
1.355 Reword-перефразировать, басқаша айту
1.356 .Right-правильно, дұрыс
1.357 .Rule- правило, ереже
1.358 .Sequence of tenses- согласование времен, шақтар сәйкестігі
1.359 .Simultaneous- одновременный, бір мезгілде
1.360 .Singular- единственное число, жекеше түрде
1.361 .Special question- специальный вопрос, арнайы сұрақ
1.362 .State- состояние, жағдай
1.364 Stem-корень, түбір
1.365 .Subject-подлежащее, бастауыш
1.366 Subordinate clause- придаточное предложение, сабақтас сөйлем
1.367 .Substitute- заменить, алмастыру
1.368 .Succession of actions- последовательность действий
1.369 .Superlative- превосходный
1.370 .Syllable- слог
1.371 Temporary aсtion- периодическое,временное действие время
1.372 Uncountable noun- неисчисляемое существительное
1.373 Unoproductive- непродуктивный
1.374 Unreal condition-нереальное условие
1.375 Viewpoint adverb- наречие выражающееЭ точку зрения
1.376 When/if clause- придаточное предложение времени и условия
1.377 Wish- желание, пожелание
1.378 Zero-нулевой
2 ЛЕКЦИИ
Структура лекционных занятий:
Lecture 1. The Subject matter of history the English language. The Periods of the history of the English
language.
1. The object of the history of the English language and its aim and significance.
2. The Old English period, the Middle English period and the Modern English period.
Тезисы лекции
The history of the English language begins with the invasion of the British Isles be Germanic tribes in the 5 th
century of our era.
The history of the English language is generally subdivided into old English (5 th -11th) Middle English
(11th 15th) and New English (15th fill now).
Prior to the Germanic invasion the British Isles must have been inhabited for at least fifty thousand years. The
earliest inhabitants whose linguistic affiliation has been established are the Celts. The Celts came to Britain in three
waves. Economically and socially the Celts were a trail society made up of kins, kindship groups, clans and tribes;
they practised a primitive agriculture, and carried on trade with Celtic Gaul.
The first millenium B.C. was the period of Celtic migrations and expansion. Traces of their civilisation are still
found all over Europe.Celtic languages were spoken over extensive parts of Europe before our era; later they were
absorbed by other Indo-European languages.
Language, whether it is English, Russian or any other, is a historical phenomenon. It is constantly changing
through its history.
The changes object all the sphere of the language: grammar and vocabulary, phonetics and spelling. The history
of English embraces over fifteen centuries.
The aims set before a student are as follows:
1) to speak of the characteristics of the language at the earlier stages of its development;
2) to trace the language from the OE period up to modern times;
3) to explain the principal features in the development of modern language historically.
To achieve these aims you (me ) must know the theoretical basis of the subject and to work wish the
text to apply the theoretical knowledge to the practical analysis of English texts of different periods of the
language development.
The history of the English language is generally subdivided into old English (5 th -11th) Middle English
th
(11 15th) and New English (15th fill now).
The outer history of the language is the events of the people speaking this language affecting the language
il the history of the people reflected in their language . The inner history of the language is the description of
the changes in the language itself, its grammar, phonetics, vocabulary or spelling.
English language belongs of the Germanic subdivision of the indo – European family of languages.
At the beginning of A.D. Germanic tribes occupied vast territories in western central and northern Europe. The
tribes and dialects they spoke at the time were generally very mush alike, but he degree of similarity varied.
Its common to speak of the East Germanic group of dialects mainly spoken in Central Europe – gothic ,
Vandolk, Vurgundian, North Germanic group of dialects - Old Norwegian, Old Danish, old Swedish, old
Icelandic and the West Germanic group of dialects - the dialect of Angles, Saxons, Frisians, originally spoken
in western Europe.
One of the most important common features of all Germanic languages is its strong dynamic stress
falling on the 1- st root syllable. The fixed stress emphasized the syllable bearing the most important semantic
element and to a certain degree later contributed to the reduction of unstressed syllables, changing the
grammatical system of the language. The most important lecture of the system of Germanic vowels is the so –
called Allout, or gradation, when is a spontaneous , positional independent alteration of vowels inherited but the
Germanic language from the common Indo – European period. It is all alternation of vowels in the root suffix
or ending depending on the grammatical from or meaning of the word. Two types of Ablaut (Qualitative - [e
]/[a] or [e]/[o] f.e. bera /to give birth / - born (baby)
stelan / to steal/ - stal (stole)
(guantitative - [e: ] [e]
[-]
pater
pater patros
Another phenomenon common for all Germanic language was the tendency of phonetic assimilation of the
root vowel to the of ending the so – called Umlaut or mutation (polatol mutation or i – Umlaut , when under the
influence of sounds [i] or [j] in the suffix or ending the root vowels became more front and more closed (Goth
harj is OE here (army) cath domjan OE (demon) daem)
Speaking about Germanic constants, we should speak of the correspondence between Indo-European and
germantic languages whish was parented as a system of interconnected facts by the German linguist Jacob
Grimm in 1822. This phenomenon is called the first consonant shift or Grimm’s Law.
A Dutch linguist Karl Verner and his work is accepted as Verner’s Law.
It should be mentioned that Germanic languages belonged to the synthetic type of form –building, which
means that they expressed the grammatical meanings by changing the forms of the word itself, not resorting
to any auxiliary words. Nouns had case system (nominative, feminine, neuter, verbs had the categories of
person, number, tense, mood and voice.
Main ways of formation of words were
1) by means of ending
2) Ablaut
3) Suppletives
Although the people of the Germanic tribes were mostly illiterates, some of the Germanic nations had
their own mode of writing, wish a distinctive alphabet called runic, each letter of which was called a rune.
This alphabet appeared in the II century of A.D. and excited among some nations thought the uhole Middle Ages.
Вопросы для самоконтроля
1/ What is the aim of the History of the English language?
2/ What subdivision does the English language belong to?
3/ What is the most important common feature of all Germanic languages?
4/ What were the main ways of word formation in Old English language?
Рекомендуемая литература
1. Аракин В.Д. Очерки по истории английского языка. – М., 1975.
2. Аракин В.Д. История английского языка . М., 1985.
3. Брукнер К. История английского языка. М., 1977 . Т. 1-2.
4. Расторгуева История английского языка М., 1999
Lecture 2. The Word Stock of the English language and its development.
1. The Old English Word stock and its specific features: Indo-European, Common Germanic and Native
words.
2. The evolution of the word stock under the influence of borrowed words.
3. The Middle English word stock and its characteristic features.
The English language belongs of the Germanic subdivision of the Indo – European family of languages.
At the beginning of the 5th century of A.D. Germanic tribes occupied vast territories in western central and
northern Europe. The tribes and dialects they spoke at the time were generally very mush alike, but he degree
of similarity varied.
Its common to speak of the East Germanic group of dialects mainly spoken in Central Europe – gothic ,
Vandolk, Vurgundian, North Germanic group of dialects - Old Norwegian, Old Danish, old Swedish, old
Icelandic and the West Germanic group of dialects - the dialect of Angles, Saxons, Frisians, originally spoken
in western Europe.
OE scribes used in two kinds of letters: the Runic alphabet and the letters of the Latin alphabet. The Most of the
OE material – OE manuscripts – is written in the Latin script. The use of Latin letters in English differed in some
points from their use in Latin, for scribes made certain modifications and additions in order to indicate OE sounds.
Depending on the size and shape of the letters modern philologists distinguish between several scripts. The
variety used in Britain is known as the Irish. Out of the altered shapes of letters in the scripts – d, f g, and others –
only a peculiar shape of g, is preserved in modern publications. In the OE variety of the Latin alphabet i and j
were not distinguished; there were no u and v ; the letters k, q, x and w were not used until many years later. A
new letter was devised by putting a stroke through d – d or ð , also the capital letter – D to indicate the voiceless
and voiced interdental [θ ] [ð]. The letter a was used alone either as a part of a ligature made up of a and e - ǽ;
likewise in the earlier OE texts we find the ligature____ ( o + e ), which was later replaced by e.
The most interesting peculiarities of OE writing was the use of some runic characters, in the 1st place, the rune
called “thorn”
which was employed alongside the crossed d, ð to indicate θ and ð - it is usually preserved in
modern publications as a distinctive feature of the OE script. In the manuscripts one more rune was regularly used “ wynn’ for the sound w. In modern publications it is replaced by w.з
Like any alphabetic writing, OE writing was based on a phonetic principle: every letter indicated a separate
sound. This principle, however, was not always observed, even at the earliest stages of phonetic spelling. Some
letters indicated two or more sounds, even distinct phonemes, e.g. з stood for 4 different phonemes; some letters,
indicating distinct sounds stood for positional variants of phonemes – a and - æ. A careful study of the OE
sound system has revealed
That a set of letters s, f and _____ stood for two sounds each: a voiced and voiceless consonant. And yet, on the
whole, OE spelling was far more phonetic and consistent than Mod. E spelling.
The letters of the OE alphabet below are supplied with transcription symbols, if their sound values in OE differ
from the sound values normally attached to them in Latin and other languages.
In reading OE texts one should observe the following rules for letters indicating more than one sound.
The letters f, s and _____stand for voiced fricatives between vowels and also a vowel and a voiced consonant;
otherwise they indicate corresponding voiceless fricatives:
OE f ofer (over)
selfa (selva)
s risan(ri:zan)
NE over
self
rise
d,__ OE o er (o:__er)
feohtan (feoxtan)
__t (____t)
NE other
fight
that
The original stem suffixes were formed both by vowels and consonants. Thus there were 2 groups of
declensions in OE: the vowel declension (strong declension) a and the consonant one (weak).
The following classes of pronouns were to be observed in OE:
Personal, possessive, demonstrative, interrogative, relative and indefinite. The declension system was not the
some for all classes. It has at least two subsystems: the dedension of personal pronouns of other pronouns.
Although the grammatical categories of such subsystem were the some i.e. gender, number, case, the number of
categorial composing those categories was different.
singular, dual and plural. F.e. Ie (I) with (two of us) we (we). The other pronouns had 3 gender, 2 number
forms, but unlike personal pronoun they had 5 case forms: the Nom, The Akk, the Dative, the genitive and the
instrumental.
The paradigm of the adjectives is similar of that of the noun and the pronoun i.e. it comprises gender, 2
number forms: the Number, Case.
Вопросы для самоконтроля
1/ What main specific features has the Old English word stock?
2/ What can you say about the influence of borrowed words into the vocabulary system of the English language ?
3/ What main characteristic features has the Middle English grammatical system?
4/ How many case forms were there in ME grammatical system?
Рекомендуемая литература
1. Аракин В.Д. Очерки по истории английского языка. – М., 1975.
2. Аракин В.Д. История английского языка . М., 1985.
3. Брукнер К. История английского языка. М., 1977 . Т. 1-2.
4. Расторгуева История английского языка М., 1999
Lecture 3. The evolution of the phonetic system of the English language.
1. The characteristics of Old English phonetic system (vowels, consonants and stress) in
comparision with Modern English phonetic system.
2. Phonetic characteristics of Middle English period.
3. The change of vowels and consonants. New diphthongs. The in the system of orthography.
There were the following vowel phonemes in Old English:
Monophthongs
diphthongs
a xe I o u y
ea eo
- - - - - - - a xe I o u y
ea eo
As we see in OE there existed an exact parallelism between long vowels and corresponding short vowels. Not
only monophthongs but even diphthongs found their counterparts whish differed from them not only in quality
but also in quantity.
All OE vowel phonemes can be traced back to common Germanic vowel phonemes. Old English
monophthongs are, as a rule a burgher developed of some Common Germanic monophthongs.
OE
[ ]from Common
[a] dags
[u] cusans, etc.
So we see all OE vowels are or Common Germanic origin, though with some changes, as a result of which
the diphthong may be originated from monophthongs and vice versa.
The changes that look place in the prehistoric period of the development of the English language and which
explain the difference between OE and CY vowels are of two types:
Independent and assimilative.
The most important and assimilative changes are breaking and palatal
mutation. The process of breaking took place in the 6th century.
It objected 2 vowels [ ] and [e] when they were followed by the consonants [r] [i] [h] generally followed by
another consonant palatal mutation occurred somewhere during the 6 -7 centuries. The qualitative change of
OE vowels that experts call palatal mutation or I – mutation objected Germanic words where a vowel in a
stressed syllable. Almost all vowels, booth diphthong and monohthongs became further forward and higher, or
more palatal and more narrow, with the exception of [e] and [i] which could go no further. This may described
as a kind of vowel harmory - a natural process objecting many modern languages. As a result of palatal
mutation new phonemes of entered the vowel system in OE – the vowel phoneme [y] and the vowel phoneme [
y ], the result of the mutation of [u] and [u] respectively.
The old English consonant system consisted of some 14 consonant phonemes denoted by the letters.
P b m t f d n s r I p( )c h
The consonant system in OE manifested the following peculiarities
1. The relatively small of consonant phonemes – 14
2. The absence of affricates and fricatives whish we do not find in the language such as
3. Dependence of the quality of the phoneme upon its environment in the word
All vowels in the unstussed position underwent a qualitative change in ME and became the vowel of the type
of[ә ] or [e ] unstressed.
This phonetic change had a bar – reaching effect upon the system of the grammatical endings of the English
words which now due to the process underwent qualitative and quantitative changes. 3 long and 2 short
monohthongs and all the diphthongs underwent changes and there appeared 4 new diphthongs. Besides
qualitative changes mentioned above vowels under stress underwent certain changer in quantity, called
lengthening and shortening of vowels and whish left traces in grammar and word – stock. Due to it vowel
interchange developed in many cases between: different forms formed from the some root.
The most important change in the consonant system that can be observed if we compare the OE and the ME
consonant system will be the development of the fricative consonant and the affricate from OE palatal
consonants or consonant combinations.
Special notice should be taken on the development of such consonant phonemes that had voiced and
voiceless variants in OE, such as [f-v] [Ө]- [ә] [s-z]. They became different phonemes in ME.
Vowels in the unstressed position already reduced in ME to the vowel of the vowel of the [ ] type are dropped
in New English if they are bound in the endings of words. The vowel in the endings is sometimes preserved –
mainly to phonetic reason. All long monohthongs in NE underwent a change that is called “The great vowel
shift” . Due to this change the vowels became more narrow and more front.
When a long vowel was followed in a word by the consonant “r” the given consonant but the resulting
vowel is make open than the resulting vowel in such cases when the long vowel undergoing the shift was
followed by a consonant other than “r”.
Some qualitative changes took place with some short monohthongs [u] >[^] in ME [but] in ME [b^t]
Two of 4 ME diphthongs changed in NE [ai] – [ei], [au] contracted to [ ] lawe – [ ] –law- [ ]
Quantitave changes of vowels in NE period were due to the vocalization of consonants [r] and [h].
The changes that affected consonants in ME are not very numerous. They are as follows:
1.Apperance of a new consonant in the system of English phonemes [ ] and the development of the
consonants [ ] and [ ] from palatal consonants.
ME [ ]
in borrowed words, where the sounds [ ]
whish appeared in ME developed in native
words.
2. Certain consonants disappeared at the end of the word of before another consonant. The sound [r] farm, far
3. The fricative consonants [s] [Ө] [f] were voiced after unstressed vowels or in words having no sentence
stress.
Вопросы для самоконтроля
1/ How many vowel phonemes were there in the Old English phonetic system?
2/ What types differences there exist between OE and ME phonetic system?
3/ What is “The Great Vowel Shift” ?
4/ How many consonant phonemes were there in OE phonetic system?
5/ What changes took place in the system of consonant phonemes?
Рекомендуемая литература
1. Аракин В.Д. Очерки по истории английского языка. – М., 1975.
2. Аракин В.Д. История английского языка . М., 1985.
3. Брукнер К. История английского языка. М., 1977 . Т. 1-2.
4. Расторгуева История английского языка М., 1999
Lectures 4 and 5. The Main characteristic features of the OE and the ME grammatical system.
The evolution of the grammatical system of the English language.
1. The evolution of grammatical system of the English language in the Old English and Middle English period.
2. The main characteristic features of ME and Modern English.
3. The main morphological features of the Old, Middle and Modern English periods.
4. The evolution of parts of speech (noun, adjective, pronoun, numerals and verb).
The OE language was a synthetic language whish means that all the principal grammatical nations were
expressed by a change of the form of the word in the narrow meaning of the term. OE was a highly inflected
language. The abundance of inflexions resulted from the fact that the paradigm of conjugation were formed by
many grammatical categories and there was more
than one conjugation due to the splitting of the once
uniform paradigm in accordance with the original structure of the word.
There were 5 declinable parts of speech in OE. The noun, the pronoun, the adjective, the numeral and the
participle. The OE noun paradigm was composed by the ,following grammatical nouns: gender, number, case.
The category of gender was formed by opposition of 3 gender- forms: masculine, feminine and neuter. The
grammatical gender did not always coincide with the natural gender of the person and sometimes even
contradicted it. Fe witman - woman was declined as masculine. The category of number was formed by
opposition of two forms. The singular and the plural F.e. fisc - fiscas, to – te.
There were the 4 forms (cases) in OE: nominative, Senitive, Dativ, Akkusative.
In the course of the development of OE, the original paradigm had undergone great changes due to the busion
of the original stem suffix and the grammatical ending into one element which from the point of view of OE is to
be regarded as a grammatical ending.
As a result of that busion nouns to have had different stem - suffixes in OE acquired materially different
endings in the some case, for example.
Nominative plural
a-stem
stan – as
o – stem
carta
n - stem
nam – an
The original stem suffixes were formed both by vowels and consonants. Thus there were 2 groups of declensions
in OE: the vowel declension (strong dedension) a and the consonant one (weak).
The following classes of pronouns were to be observed in OE:
Personal, possessive, demonstrative, interrogative, relative and indefinite. The declension system was not the
some for all classes. It has at least two subsystems: the dedension of personal pronouns of other pronouns.
Although the grammatical categories of such subsystem were the some i.e. gender, number, case, the number of
categorial composing those categories was different.
singular, dual and plural. F.e. Ie (I) with (two of us) we (we). The other pronouns had 3 gender, 2 number
forms, but unlike personal pronoun they had 5 case forms: the Nom, The Akk, the Dative, the genitive and the
instrumental.
The paradigm of the adjectives is similar of that of the noun and the pronoun i.e. it comprises gender, 2
number forms: the Number, Case.
Cases: N, D, A, G, instrumental. There were two ways of declining Adjectives - the Definite and the Indefinite.
There was also the category of degrees of comporision heard – heardra – heardost (hord).
The verb – system in OE was represented by two sets of forms the binite and the non – finite forms of the
verb (Infinitive, Participle). They differed more than today they do, as the verbals in OE not conjugated, but
also declined like nouns or adjectives. OE verbs was built up by categories of person, number, tense and
The grammatical category of tense was represent by two forms: Present tense and Past tense. There was no
future tense in OE, future events were expressed wish the help of a present tense an adverb denoting futurity
of by a combination of a model verb, generally shall + Infinitive (Sculan) or will + Infinitive (willan).
There were three mood forms in OE: Indicative, Imperative and Oblique. The Indicative Mood were used in
cases similar to those in which they are used now. But the Oblique Mood in OE differed greatly from the
corresponding mood in New English. There was only one Mood form in OE that was used both to express
events that are thought of as unreal or as problematic (today there only two mood to denote such events, the
Subjunctive and Conjunctive).
There were two principal means for forming verb – stems in OE:
1) by means of vowel interchange of the root vowel and 2) by means of suffixation. The accordance with
these two methods of the formation of the verb stems all the verbs in OE formed 2 main groups - the strong
verbs and the verbs in OE formed 2 main groups - the strong verbs and the weak vebs.
A.I. Smirnitsky suggested the morphological classification of verbs in OE (strong verbs are divided in VII
classes, weak –III classes).
The grammar system of the language in the Middle and New English periods underwent radical changes.
Many grammatical nation formerly expressed synthetically either disappeared from the grammar system of the
language or came to be expressed by analytical means. We observe the process of gradual loss of declension
by many parts of speech, formerly declined. This in ME there remained the noun, the pronoun, the adjective as
declinable words, in NE the noun , tne pronoun, the adjective as declinable words, in NE the noun and the
pronoun are the only parts of speech that are declined. Three types dedlensions: a – slem, n – stem of OE are
preserved in ME but the number of nouns belonging to the some declension in OE and ME varies. The original
a – system grows in volume, acquiring new words from the original n – stem dedension and borrowed words.
There were two categories in the declension of nouns in ME.
Number (singular, plural). Case –(Common case, genitive case )
Nominative, Accusative Dative
The process of simplification of the system of noun declension continued at the beginning of the NE period.
In NE we do not find different declensions. Only-es, s in accordance with a –system declension. The category of
number is preserved, manifesting the difference between singular and plural forms. The category of case, which
underwent reduction first to three then to two forms in NE contains the same number of case –forms as in
ME, but the difference is the number of the nouns used in the senitive case - mainly living beings, inanimate
nouns used in so common. The categories of adjectives (declension and number) completely disappeared in NE.
Contrary to that degrees of comparison were not only preserved but also developed in ME and NE.
There existed such means of forming degrees of comparison as suffixation, vowel interchange and suppletive
forms, there remained as a productive means only one: suffixation. At the same time there was formed and
developed another means – analytical - use of auxiliary words. The article: definite and indefinite appeared in
ME.
IV. In ME a new verbal developed - the gerund. In the process of English history the verbals shiffed from the
system of declension into the system of conjugation. In ME the subdivision of strong and weak verbs is
preserved. In NE due to different phonetic process and changes on analogy the two principal groups of modern
verbs: regular and irregular. Main sources of irregular verbs were irregular verbs of OE and Scandinavian
borrowings. In addition to the OE categories their appeared the categories of aspect and time correlation.
Analytical forms became used for forming them and for tense, mood.
Вопросы для самоконтроля
1/ What kind of language was OE language according to the structure?
2/ Yow many parts of speech were there in OE language? And what were there?
3/ What principal means of verb forming stems were there in OE?
4/ What parts of speech underwent declension in ME language?
5/ What new verbal had developed in ME?
Рекомендуемая литература
1. Аракин В.Д. Очерки по истории английского языка. – М., 1975.
2. Аракин В.Д. История английского языка . М., 1985.
3. Брукнер К. История английского языка. М., 1977 . Т. 1-2.
4. Расторгуева История английского языка М., 1999
Lecture 6. The Subject matter of theoretical phonetics.
The phonetic struture of the English language. The phonological aspect of Speech sounds.
Modification of English phonemes in connected Speech.
1. The Subject matter of theoretical phonetics.
2. The phonetic struture of the English language.
3. The phonological aspect of Speech sounds.
4. Modification of English phonemes in connected Speech.
The term phonetics is derived from the Greek language “fo:ne” meaning “ sound
voice”. Phonetics is connected with the study of all the above mentioned components from the different point of
view, the most important of them being the functional one. As a branch of linguistics phonetics occupies a peculiar
position. Though it is an independent science and develops according to its own laws, it is connected with a
number of other linguistic and non-linguistic sciences. One the one hand , phonetics is connected with grammar,
lexicology, stylistics and the history of the language. On the other hand, it is connected with physics, biology,
phonology, anatomy and other sciences.
Phonetics is connected with grammar as it helps to pronounce correctly singular and plural forms of nouns / book
- books, bag- bags, pen – pens/ , the Past Indefinite and past Participle forms of the verbs and other endings:
asks – asked, lives – lived, invites – invited, Nick’s, teacher’s etc. It is connected with grammar also through
sound interchange, as in: wife – wives, man – men ,mouse – mice, write –wrote –written etc.
Phonetics is connected with lexicology through the accentual structure of English words in which verbs are formed
from nouns by conversion. E.g. import – to import, subject – to subject ,present – to present.
Phonetics is connected with stylistics through intonation which serves to express different emotions and to
distinguish between different attitudes on the part of the speaker or reader.
Thus, phonetics as a science , has developed a number of its own branches: physiological or articulatory
phonetics, which treats of the articulation and perception , physical or acoustic phonetics, which studies the
physical nature of sounds and phonology, which is concerned with the study of functions of different phonetic
phenomena.
Each of these branches of phonetics has its own methods of investigation and its own terminology.
There are other divisions of phonetics as well. Phonetics may be general and special. General phonetics is a part
of general linguistics. It studies sound producing possibilities of the speech apparatus and the way they are used for
human intercommunication.
Special phonetics studies the contemporary phonetic system of a particular language. We may also speak of
comparative phonetics which treats of the correlation between the phonetic system of two or more languages.
Historical phonetics is a part of the history of a language. Its aim is to trace changes taking place in the phonetic
system of a given language at different periods of its historical development. Phonetics may be also practical and
theoretical. Practical phonetics has a wide sphere of application: 1/ It is used in teaching foreign language and
mother tongues to children and adults; 2/ Phonetics deals with studying speech defects and ways of curing them;
3/ Phonetics is also used in training teachers, actors and singers etc.
The importance of theoretical phonetics can be observed through its various sphere of investigation. 1/ it gives a
detailed description of the phonetic structure of a certain language; 2/ Theoretical phonetics gives through
analysis, description and comparison of all the phonetic means in the system of different languages in order to
reveal the general laws of development of human living speech / general phonetics/; 3/ It is concerned with
comparative study of the phonemic systems of two languages; 4/ it carries out investigations of such particular
problems of general phonetics as phonemes ,syllables, stress, melody, syntagma and so on.
Phonology is a branch of phonetics which studies the functional aspect of sounds. The phonology is based on
the phoneme theory, which came into being in Russia . As has been said before its founder was the Polish-Russian
scientist professor Ivan Alexandrovitch Bauduin de Courteney. He tried to analyze phonemes according to their
functions
The number of phonemes in each language is much smaller than its number of allophones. It means that each
phoneme has several allophones. Classification of allophones is very important for practical teaching, because in
actual speech it is allophones that people pronounce and not phonemes.
Allophones are divided into 2 groups / principal/ allophones, and subsidary allophones. The most representative
allophone is called typical. It is not influenced by neighbouring speech sounds. Typical allophones are described in
English text-books. They are included into the classification of phonemes of the language. For example, the
typical allophone of the t phoneme is characterized by the following feature; 1/ occlusive plossive; 2/ forelingual
alveolar; 3/ voiceless-fortis; 4/ oral.
In every use language is not conducted in isolated, separate units; it is performed in connected sequence of
larger units, in words, phrases and longer utterances. There are actually some remarkable differences between the
pronunciation of a word in isolation and the same word in a block of connected speech. These changes are mostly
quite regular and predictable. The problem of defining the phonemic status of sounds in connected speech is too
complicated because of the numerous modifications of sounds in speech. These modifications are observed both
within words and word boundaries / or junctions/.
As a result of intercourse between consonants and vowels there appear such processes of connected speech as
assimilation, vowel reduction and elison / which is sometimes called delition/. The adaptive modification of a
cononant by a neighbouring consonant in the speech chain is known as assimilation, e.g. the alveolar t followed
by the interdental
becomes dental; eights, at three etc.
One of the wide-spread sound changes is certainly vowel reduction. Reduction is actually qualitative or
quantitative weakening of vowels in unstressed positions, e.g. board - blackboard.
Assimilation may be of three degrees: complete , partial , intermediate. Assimilation is said to be complete
when the articulation of the assimilated consonant fully coincides with that of the assimilating one. E.g. horseshoe / in rapid speech/. Assimilation is said to be partial when the assimilated consonant retains its main
phonemic features and becomes only partly similar in some features of the assimilating sound. E.g. tenth / non –
aspirated, devoiced/. The degree of assimilation is said to be intermediate between complete and partial , when
the assimilated consonant changes into a different sound, and does not coincide with the assimilating consonant,
e.g. gooseberry.
Assimilation may be of three types as fae as its direction concerned: progressive , regressive and double. In
progressive assimilation the assimilated consonant is influenced by the preceding consonant. E.g. What’s this.
In regressive assimilation the preceding consonant is influenced by the following one.
e.g. newspaper. In reciprocal or double assimilation two adjacent / neighbouring/ consonants influence each
other. E.g. twenty.
Вопросы для самоконтроля
1/ What is the object of Theoretical phonetics?
2/ What branches of Theoretical phonetics do you know?
3/ What methods of investigation are used in articulatory phonetics?
3/ How is phonetics connected with grammar?
4/ What is the connection between phonetics and lexicology?
5/ What do you know about allophones?
6/ What groups are allophones divided into?
7/ The number of phonemes is smaller than the number of allophones in any language. Why?
8/ What are principal allophones characterized by?
9/ What functions do the phonemes fulfil in the language?
10/ What do you know about accommodation?
11/ What is assimilation?
Рекомендуемая литература
1. М.А. Соколова, Тихонова и др. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка. М., 1980.
2. В.А. Васильев и др. English Phonetics, a Theoretical Course. М., 1980
3. С.Ф. Леонтьева Теоретическая фонетика английского языка. М., 1978.
4. А.В Борисова. Теоретическая фонетика. Минск, 1980.
5. В.А. Васильев и др. English Intonation. М., 1980.
6. А.М. Антипова. Система английской речевой интонации. М., 1984.
7. Н.И. Жинкин. Мехпнизмы речи. М.,1958.
9. Л.В Златоустова. Фонетическая структура слова в потоке речи. Казань, 1962.
Lecture 7. The syllabic structure of English words.
1. Types of syllables in the English language. Main theories of syllable formation and syllable division: expiratory,
sonority.
2. The theory according to prof. L.V. Shcherba. The theory according prof. N.L. Zhinkin.
Phonetic and orthographic syllables.
3. Functions of syllabic structure: constitutive, distinctive and recognitive.
Phonemes are seldom
pronounced in isolation, they usually occur in sequences. Sound sequencesare
acoustically broken up into smaller units known as syllables, which are the minimal units of sounding speech. A
syllable may consist of one or more number of phonemes, i.e. it may be formed by one vowel / alone or in
combinations with consonants/ or by a word final sonorants [ l, m, n, n] preceded by a consonant as in [ ai ] (I ) , [
a:] ( are ), [wi] (we) , [ æt ] (at) [ ten] (ten) , [æpl ] (apple) etc.
The syllabic structure of words may be graphically represented by the letter V standing for a vowel sound, and the
letter C standing for a consonant sound, . The syllabic sonorant is represented by S.
Every syllable has a definite structure. It belongs to one of the following four main types of syllables: V , VC , CV
, CVC. They are classified as covered, uncovered, open and closed.
There are a great number of variants in the syllabic structure which are formed by increasing the number of
consonants in the initial and final position, as in:
VCC ( and, act, ask, else etc);
VCCC ( e.g. ends, acts, asks, angle etc);
CCV (e.g. blue, clay, cry, fly etc);
CCCV (e.g. spray, straw, screw etc.);
CVCC (e.g. cats, goats, pens, child etc.);
CVCCC (e.g. child’s, facts, minds etc.);
The similar syllablic structures exist in Russian and Kazakh too:
V : и-бо, и-ва , о-бед, à-òà, î-ºû, û-äûñ;
CV : но-ра, жа-ра, áà-ëà, äà-ëà, ái-ëi-ìi;
CCV: гра-нат, гра-фа, ста-кан;
CCCV: стра-тег, стра-тосфера;
VC: он, ад , от /предлог/, àé, үé, îé-ëàíäû;
VCC: есть, иск, икс, акт, àíò, өðò, ұëò;
CVC: лук, маг, лоб, луг, òàñ, áàñ-òûқ, áұë-áұë;
CVCC: мавр, воск, литр, қàíò, æàðқ-æұðқ, қàðò,қàíò;
CVCCC: пункт, текст;
There are several theories which try to explain the mechanism of syllabic formation and syllabic division. The
oldest of them iss the so-called expiratory theory/ also pressure or chest pulse theory/. According to this theory
each syllable corresponds to one expiration. A word consists of as many syllables as there are such expirations
made when the word is uttered. Each syllable begins with a fresh expiration.
Next appeared the so-called sonority theory of syllables. It was proposed by Otto Esperson. This theory is wide
spread now among foreign linguists. All speech sounds have different inherent sonority. The most sonotous are
open back vowels, the least sonorous are voiceless stops.. O. Esperson classified all speech sounds according to
seven levels of sonority; 1/ vowels; 2/ semi-vowels ( j,w) ; 3/ sonorants (l,m,n,ŋ, r) ; 4/ voiced fricatives ( v,ð,z,э ) ;
5/ voiced stops (b, d,g]; 6/ voiceless fricatives ſ,h] ; 7/ voiceless stops ( p,t,k). Each syllable consists of one peak
of sonority.
Professor Shcherba L.V. out forward a new theory of syllable formation and syllable division. The theory was
further developed by hus followers and at present has become widespread.
According to professor Shcherba L.V. all consonants may be of three types; 1/ initially strong(and finally weak) as
in: on, it, us; 2/ finally strong ( and initially weak) as in may, tea, no); 3/ double consonants which are strong at
both ends and have a weakening in the middle, as in: good day, misspell etc. The most energetic part of the
consonant is attached to a vowel. For inst., in the word “ ten” there are two consonants :[t ] and [n]. The consonant
[t] is strong ( and initially weak) , because the vowel is attached to the end of a consonant. The consonant [n] is
initially strong ( and finally weak), because the vowel is attached to the beginning of a [n]. At the beginning the [t]
is weak, at the end it gets stronger. The muscular tension increases until it reaches its climax produced by the
vowel [e]. Then the muscular tension begins to diminish. The [n] is still strong at the beginning but gets quite
weak at the end. Professor Shcherba’s theory was developed by his followers and now it is known as “muscular
tension theory”.
Professor N.I. Zhinkin”s investigation of the mechanism of syllable formation and syllable division in the
pronunciation of the Russian language may serve as a basis for a general theory of syllables. By using different
complicated techniques professor N.I. Zhinkin found out whichspeech organs causes a syllable to be formed. This
organ is the pharyngeal cavity.
Phonemic and orthographic syllables should not be confused. They sometimes coincides and sometimes do not.
For instance , phonetically disyllabic words like “apple” , “ higher”, “eaten” are treated in writing as monosyllabic
words, whereas, orthographically disyllabic words like “type”, , “come,, “wrote” etc. have only one phonetic
syllable. Here some examples:
phonetic syllables
orthographic syllables
[a:-tis-tik]
art-ist-ic
[ drai-va]
driv-er
Syllable as a phonetic unit. Types of syllables in the English language. Main theories of syllable formation and
syllable division: expiratory, sonority.
The theory according to prof. L.V. Shcherba. The theory according prof. N.L. Zhinkin.
Phonetic and orthographic syllables.
Functions of syllabic structure: constitutive, distinctive and recognitive.
The syllabic structure of the English language performs three main functions: 1/ constitutive; 2/ distinctive; 3/
recognitive .
Вопросы для самоконтроля
1. What is our speech acoustically broken up into?
2. What types of syllables do you know?
3. What sounds may form syllables in English?
4. What syllable formation theories do you know?
5. What main syllable division rules in the English language do you know?
6. What is an open syllable?
7. What syllable is closed?
8. What is the difference between the syllabic structure of the English and Russian (Kazakh) languages?
Рекомендуемая литература
1. М.А. Соколова, Тихонова и др. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка. М., 1980.
2. В.А. Васильев и др. English Phonetics, a Theoretical Course. М., 1980
3. С.Ф. Леонтьева Теоретическая фонетика английского языка. М., 1978.
4. А.В Борисова. Теоретическая фонетика. Минск, 1980.
5. В.А. Васильев и др. English Intonation. М., 1980.
6. А.М. Антипова. Система английской речевой интонации. М., 1984.
7. Н.И. Жинкин. Мехпнизмы речи. М.,1958.
9. Л.В Златоустова. Фонетическая структура слова в потоке речи. Казань, 1962.
Lecture 8.
Accentual structure of English words.
1. Word accent and if types. The position of word accent.
2. The tendencies and factors determining the word accent. Degrees of word accent. The place of word
stress.
3. The factors defining the place and the degree of word stress. The functions of word accent.
Different syllables in one and the same word are usually pronounced wirh a different degree of
prominence. such special prominence given to one or more syllables in the same word is called word
accent ( or word stress). Different linguists define word accent differently. There exist different ways of
making a syllable more prominent. That is why we may speak of different types of word accent. . The
pronunciation of a syllable may be made more prominent if the syllable is called with greater force.
Professor D. Jones said in this respect: “Stress may be described as the degree of force with which a
sound or a syllable is uttered…A strong force of utterance means energetic action of the articulating
organs...This generally gives the objective impression of loudness. A syllable may become more
prominent if it is pronounced at different pitch levels or in different pitch directions. Word accent of this
type is called musical (or pitch accent).
A syllable may become more prominent if its vowel pronounced longer than the same vowel in an
unstressed position. For instance, the / i: / vowels of the word / `θi:si:z/ (theses) are of different lengths.
It is longer in a stressed position and shorter in an unstressed one. This type of word accent is known as
quantitative accent.
A syllable may be become more prominent if the vowel is pronounced distinctly and its quality is
not obscured. For instance, the /ia/ in / `siarias/ are a bit different in quality: the stressed /ia/ is distinct
and clear, while the unstressed /ia/ is somewhat obscured. According to Prof. Torsuyev this type of word
accent is qualitative accent.
Languages ,may be also be classified according to the position of word accent in disyllabic and
polysyllabic words. From this point of view languages have either word accent or fixed word accent.
To the fixed type of word accent belong French and Kazakh ( the final syllable is stressed),Lattish and
Czech ( the initial syllables is accent).
English and Russian belong to the so-called free word accent. It means that the main accent may fall in
different words on a syllables occupying any position. The position of the stress in each particular word
remains unchanged, or fixed. In Russian and English there are words in which the main stress falls either
on the first, or the second, or the third, etc syllable in a word.
In Russian; слово, сегодня, перевод, преподаватель, электрификация и т.д.
In English: morning, companion, demonstration, simplification etc.
Accent is called shifting if it changes its position from one morpheme to another in different derivatives
and grammatical forms of the word. Foe example: in Russian: холод, холодный, холода, учение,
ученик, ученику и т.д. In English: accent, to accent, accentuation, subject, subjection, subjective,
subjectivity etc.
The accentual system of the English is also free/ But it is to earn the English accent than the Russian one
due to a number os reasons. There exist in English certain tendencies which make the occurrence of word
accent more predictable than in Russian. Prof. V.A. Vasilyev describes them as follows: the recessive
tendency, the rhythmic tendency, the retentive tendency and semantic factor. These four factors
help learners to determine the position of word accent in most English words.
The recessive tendency which is the oldest one is characteristic of all Germanic languages. According to
this tendency most native words in English received a stress either on the initial syllable
( e.g. father, mother husband, wonder etc.) or on the root morpheme in words with prefixes that have lost
their meaning (e.g. among, before, forget, become, begin etc.)
English speech is characterized by rhythmic alternations of stressed and unstressed syllables, in which
stressed notional words alternate with short unstressed form words. This feature has caused the
development of the so-called rhythmic tendency in the English word accentuation system.
The so-called retentive tendency consists in retaining the accent ( either primary or secondary) in
derivatives on the same syllable as in the original word. The difference between retentive accent and
constant accent lies in the following: content accent remain on the same syllable in all the reivatives and
grammatical forms of the word: retentive accent in one group of derivatives falls on the same syllable,
while in another it may be shifted. For example: retentive accent: converse, conversable, conversant, but:
conversation, conversational, expect, expectancy, expectative, but: expectation etc.
(Compare: constant accent: begin, begins, began, begun, beginner, beginning etc.) The accentuation
structure of some English words is determined by the semantic factor. The influence of the semantic
factor upon the word accent may be commonly observed in compound words. Most of them have two
equally strong accents. Both elements of such compound words are considered to be semantically
important. 1/ words with strong prefixes ( which have definite meaning of their own), as in anti-fascist,
ex-president, half-price, indoors etc. 2/ compound adjectives, as: well-bred, ill-tempered, ligh-blue etc. 3/
compound verbs with post-verbal adverbs, such as: come in, go out etc. 4/ simple numeral from 13 to 19.
Each word of a compound numeral is stressed, e.g. nineteen, thirteen, fifty-seven, two hundred etc
The accentual structure of English of English words may be analyzed from the phonological point of
view. The accentual structure fulfils three main functions: constitutive, distinctive, recognitive.
Вопросы для самоконтроля
1/ What do we understand by word accent?
2/ What types of word accent do we distinguish?
3/ What type does the accent of the English language belong to?
4/ What is the retentive tendency?
5/ What do you know about semantic factor?
Рекомендуемая литература
1. Соколова М.А. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка. М., Владос, 2004.
1. М.А. Соколова, Тихонова и др. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка. М., 1980.
2. В.А. Васильев и др. English Phonetics, a Theoretical Course. М., 1980
4. А.В Борисова. Теоретическая фонетика. Минск, 1980.
5. В.А. Васильев и др. English Intonation. М., 1980.
6. А.М. Антипова. Система английской речевой интонации. М., 1984.
Lectures 9 and 10. Intonational structure of English sentences.
1. Intonation as a unity of sprech melody, prominence oft words, tempo, voice-tember and rhythm.
2. Components of intonational structure. Functions of intonational structure of the English language.
3. Intonation of a text. Methods of illustrating intonation graphically. Ways of representing intonation in
the text.
4. Phonostuliscics of a text and discourse.
Intonation is a complex unity of non-segmental or prosodic features of speech: 1/ melody, pitch of
the voice; 2/ sentence stress; 3/ temporal characteristics / duration, tempo, pausation/; 4/ rhythm, 5/
tambre / voice quality/.
Intonation is very important. It organizes a sentence, determines communicative type ofs of sentences
and clauses, divides sentence into intonation groups, gives prominence to words and phrases, expresses
contrasts and attitudes. The two main function of the intonation is communicative and expressive.
There are two main approaches to the problem of intonation in Great Britain. The first is represented
by a large group of phoneticians: H. Sweet, D. Jones, G. Palmer, L. Armstrong, R. Kingdon, A. Gimpson
and others. It is traditional and widely used. According to this approach the smallest unit to which
linguistic meaning can be attached is a tone-group( sense-group). Their theory is based on the assumption
that intonation consists of basic functional “blocks”. They pay much attention to these “ blocks” but not
to the way they are connected. Intonation is treated by them as a layer / пласт/ that is superimposed./
навязывать/ on the lexico-grammatical structure. In fact the aim of communication determines the
intonation structure not vice-versa.
The grammatical approach to the study of intonation was worked out by Halliday. The main unit of
intonation is a clause. Intonation is a complex of three systemic variables: tonality, tonicity and tone,
which are connected with grammatical categories. Tonality marks the beginning and the end of a tonegroup. Tonicity marks the focal point of each tone-group. The tone is the third unit in the Halliday’s
system. Tones can be primary and secondary. They convey the attitude of the speaker Halliday’s theory is
based on the syntactical function of intonation.
Melody.
Speech meledy or pitch of the voice is closely connected with sentence stress. Successive contours of
intonation singled out of the speech flow may be defined differently: sense-groups/semantic approach/,
breath-groups / extra-linguistic approach/, tone-groups/ phonological definition/, intonation groups, tone
units, pitch and stress patterns. Each tone unit has one peak of prominence in the form of a nuclear pitch
movement and a slight pause after the nucleus that end the tone unit and is usually shorter than the term
‘pause’. The tone unit is one of the most important units of intonation theory. It contains one nucleus,
which is often referred to as nuclear tone or peak of prominence. The interval between the highest and
the lowest pitched syllable is called the range of a sense group.
Sentence stress or accent.
Sentence stress is a great prominence of words, which are made more prominent in an intonation
group. The special prominence of accented words is achieved through the greater force of utterance and
changes in the direction of voice pitch, accompanied by changes in the quantity of the vowels under
stress.
The difference between stress and accent is based on the fact that in the case of stress the dominant
perceptual component is loudness, in the case of accent it is pitch. Degrees of stress in an utterance
correlated with the pitch range system. Nuclear stress is the strongest – it carries the most important
information. Non-nuclear stresses are subdivided into full and partial. Full stress occurs only in the head
of an intonation group, partial stress occurs also in the pre-head. And tail.
Given below is the list of words that are usually stressed: nouns, adjectives, numerals, interjections,
demonstrative pronouns, emphatic pronouns, possessive pronouns/ absolute forms/,
Indefinite pronouns, negative pronouns, notional verbs, auxiliary verbs, particles: only, also, too, even,
just.
The words that are usually unstressed: personal pronouns, reflexive pronouns reciprocal pronouns,
relative pronouns, indefinite pronouns used as objects, auxiliary verbs articles, particles, modal verbs.
Rhythm and tempo. Rhythm is the regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. It is
closely connected with the phonetic nature of stress. The units of the rhythmical structure of an utterance
are stress groups or rhythmic groups. The perception of boundaries between rhythmic groups is associated
with the stressd syllables or peaks of prominence. Unsressed syllables have a tendency to cling to the
proceeding stressed vowels. Each sense group of the sentense is pronounced at approximately the same
period of time, unstressed syllables are pronounced more rapidly: the greater the number of unstressed
syllables, the quicker they are pronounced. Rhythm is connected with sentence stress.
Tamber. A slower tempo makes the utterance more prominent and more important . Pauses made
between two sentences are obligatory. They are longer than pauses between sense groups. Pauses play
not only segmentative function, they show relations between utterances and intonation groups performing
constitutive function. They play the semantic and syntactic role.
Tamber or voice quality is a special colouring of the speaker’s voice. It is used to express various
emotions and moods such as joy, anger, sadness, indignation etc.
Tamber should not equated with the voice only, it is a more general concept, applicable to the inherent
resonaces of any sound. It is studied along the lines of quality: wisper, breathy, laugh, gigle, sob, cry etc.
All the components of intonation exists and develop together. English intonation as a whole carries
important information and like other phonetic phenomena ( phonemes, syllables, accent) intonation also
fulfils three main functions: constitutive, distinctive and recognitive.
Word accent and if types. The position of word accent. The tendencies and factors determining the word
accent. Degrees of word accent.
The functions of word accent.
Вопросы для самоконтроля
1/ What components of Intonation do you know?
2/ Why is the importance of intonation ?
3/ What do we understand by tamber?
4/ What functions does intonation fulfill in sentences?
Рекомендуемая литература
Lecture 11. The Subject matter of English lexicology The word as the basic unit of the language.
1. Lexicology as a science. The object of lexicology.
2. The aim and significance of lexicology. Word as a basic unit of language. Multifacet structure of the
word.
3. Linguistic functions and main characteristics of the word.
Тезисы лекции:
Lexicology is the part of linguistics dealing with the vocabulary of the language and the properties of
words as the main units of language. The term ‘ lexicology’ is composed of two Greek morphemes:
‘lexics’ meaning ‘word, phrase’,hence, lexicos , ‘having to do with words’ and ‘logos’ which denotes
‘leaning, a department of knowledge’’. Thus, the literal meaning of the term lexicology is ‘ the science of
the word’.
The term word denotes the basic unit of a given language resulting from the association of a particular meaning
with a particular group of sounds capable of a particular grammatical employment. A word therefore is
simultaneously a semantic, grammatical and phonological unit. Thus, in the word ‘boy’ the group of sounds / b,
o, i / is associated with the meaning ‘a male child up to the
age of 17 or 18’, also with other meaning, but this is the most frequent, and with a definite grammatical
employment, i.e. it is a noun and has a plural form – boys, it is a personal noun and has the Genetive form –
boy’s, boys’, it may be used in certain syntactical functions.
The geraral study of words and vocabulary is known as General lexocology. Linguistic phenomena and
properties common to all languages are generally referred to as language universals. Special lexicology devotes
its attention to the description of all the characteristic peculiarities in the vocabulary of a given language. A
great deal has been written in recent years to provide a theoretical basis on which the vocabularies of different
languages can be compared and described. This relatively new branch of
Lexicology is called contrastive /or comparative/ lexicology. The evolution of any vocabulary as well as of
its single elements, forms the object of historical lexicology This branch of lexicology discusses the origin of
various words, their change and development, and investigates the linguistic and extralinguistic forces
modifying their structure, meaning and usage. Descriptive lexicology deals with the vocabulary of a given
language at a given stage of its development. I t studies the functions of words and their specific structures.
Lexicology also studies all kinds of semantic groupings and semantic relations such as synonymy, antonymy,
homonymy, semantic fields etc. So, modern English lexicology aims at giving a systematic description of the
word-stock of Modern English words, their component parts, i.e. morphemes and various types of word-groups
and word equivalents commonly known as phraseological units. In other words Modern English lexicology
investigates the problems of word-structure and word formation in modern English, the semantic structure of
English words.
The knowledge of English is widely spread geographically – it is in fact used in all countries. It is also
spoken in many countries as a second language and used in official and business activities there. This is the
case in India, Pakistan and many other former British colonies. English is also one of the working language of
the United Nations and the universal language of International aviation. More than a half world’s scientific
literature is published in English. For all these reasons it is widely studied all over the world as a foreign
language.
The theoretical value of lexicology becomes obvious if we realize that it forms the study of one of the three
main aspects of language, i.e. its vocabulary, the other two being its grammar and the sound system.
Lexicology came into being to meet the demands of many different branches of applied linguistics, namely of
lexicography, standartization of terminology, literary criticism and especially of foreign language teaching.
The word is studied in several branches of linguistics and not in lexicology, but it is also closely connected
with general linguistics, the history of the language, phonetics, stylistics, grammar and such new branches of
science as sociolinguistics, paralinguistics /the study of non-verbal means of communication, such as gestures,
facial expressions, eye-contacts etc. pragmalinguistics /the branch of linguistics connected with the relation of
speech and its users and the influence of speech upon listeners/ and some others.
The term unit means one of the elements into which a whole may be divided or analyzed and which
possesses the basic properties of this whole. The units of a vocabulary or lexical units are two facet elements
possessing form and meaning. The basic unit forming the bulk of the vocabulary is the word. Other units are
morphemes , i.e. parts of words into which words may be analyzed , set expressions or groups of words into
which words may be combined. Words are the central elements of language system. Words can be separated
in an utterance by other such units and can be used in isolation. Unlike words, morphemes cannot be divided
into smaller meaningful units. Words are thought of as representing integer concept, feeling or action, or as
having a single referent. The meaning of morphemes is more abstract and more general than that of words and
at the same time they are less autonomous.
Set expressions are word groups consisting of two or more words whose combination is integrated so that they
are introduced in speech, so to say, ready-made as units with a specialized meaning of the whole.
Being the central element of any language system the word is a sort of focus for the problems of
phonology, lexicology, syntax, morphology and also for some other branches of knowledge.
“A word is the smallest significant unit of a given language capable of functioning alone and
characterized by positional movility within a sentence, morphological uninterruptability and semantic
intergrity”. All these criteria are necessary
because they permit us to create a basis for the oppositions between the word and the phrase, the word
and the phoneme , the word and the morpheme, their common features is that they are all units of the
language, their difference lies in the fact that the phoneme is not significant, and a morpheme cannot be
used as a complete utterance.
Вопросы для самоконтроля
1/ What are the main objects of English lexicology?
2/ What are the branches of English lexicology?
3/ What does the term “unit” mean?
4/ What main lexical units do you know?
5/ Give the definition of the term “word?”
Рекомендуемая литература
1. Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В. Лексикология английского языка. М., 2008
2. Кунин А.В. Фразеология английского языка. М., 1996
3. Зыкова И.В. Практикуи по лексикологии английского языка. М., 2006.
Lecture 12. Semantic relations in the lexico-sematic system of the English language.
1. The Polysemy. Homonymy. Classification of homonyms.
2. Synonymy. Ckassification of synonyms
3. Antonymy. Ckassification of antonyms
When two or more unrelated meanings are associated with the same form – the words
are homonyms.
The most widely accepted classification is that recognizing homonyms proper, homonyms and
homographs. Homonyms proper are words identical in pronunciation and spelling. E.g. back
/n./ ‘ part of the body’; back /adj./ ‘ away from
the front’; back /v./ ‘ to go back’; ball /n./ ‘round object used in games’; ball/n./ ‘ a gathering of
people for dancing’; bark /n./ ‘the noise made by a dog’; bark /v./ ‘to utter sharp explosive cries’
bark /n/ ‘ the skin of a tree’, bark /n./ ‘a sailing ship’.
Homophones are word are of the same sound but of different spelling and meaning: buy
– by; knight – night; storey – story; or – oar; piece – peace; steal – steel : write – right etc.
Homographs are words different in sound and meaning but accidently identical in spelling. E.g.
bow
- bow
, lead – lead; row - row , wind – wind ; tear - tear.
Different causes by which homonymy may be brought into a language are subdivided
into the following groups: 1/ homonymy through convergent sound development, when two or
three words of different origin accidentally coincide in sound; 2/ homonymy developed from
polysemy through sense development. Both may be combined with loss of endings and other
morphological processes. The first type may consist in a/ phonetic change only; b/ phonetic
change combined with loss of affixes; c/ independent formation from homonymous bases by
means of homonymous affixes. E.g.
OE manam - a/ mean
OE cest - chest a/ ‘large box’
b/ mean /think/
b/ chest’ part of a human body.
OE lufu /n./, lufian /v./ - love /n./, /v./ ME waiten /v./ - wait /n./ ,wait /v./
Synonyms can be defined as two or more words of the same language, belonging to the
same part of speech and possessing one or more identical or nearly identical denotational
meaning, interchangeable, at least, in some contexts without any considerable change in
denotational meaning, but differing in morphemic composition, style , valency, shade of
meaning, connotation and idiomatic use.
For example, the verbs to experience, to undergo, to sustain and to suffer render the notion of
experiencing something. The verb to experience and the noun experience indicate actual living
through something and coming to know it first-hand rather from hearsay. Undergo applies
chiefly to what someone or something bears or is subjected to /as to undergo an operation, to
undergo changes/. Compare the following examples: The French language has undergone
considerable and more recent changes since the date when the Normans brought it into England.
In this example the verb undergo can be replaced by its synonyms suffer or experience without
any change of the sentence meaning. Another examples: hope, expectation, anticipation. These
nouns are considered to be synonyms , because they are all mean ‘having something in mind
which is likely to happen’. They are, however, much or less interchangeable than the previous
group, because of more strongly pronounced difference in shades of meaning. Expectation may
be either of good or evil. Anticipation, as a rule, is a pleasurable expectation of something good.
Hope is not only belief, but desire that some event would happen.
The synonymic dominant is the most general term of its kind potencially containing the
specific features rendered by all the other members of the group.
If the difference in the meaning of synonyms concerns the notion o r the emotion expressed, the
synonyms are called as idiographic synonyms. E.g. in analyzing the group consisting of the
nouns look, glance, glimpse, peep, sight and view the authors suggest the following distinctive
features: 1/ quickness of action; 2/ its character; 3/ the role of the doer of the action. The words
look, glance, glimpse and peep denote a conscious of to see, the glance being the most general.
The difference is based on time and quickness of the action A glance is ‘ a look which is quick
and sudden’, a glimpse is more quicker, implying only momentary sight. A peep is ‘ a brief
furtive glimpse at something that is hidden’. Contextual synonyms are similar in meaning only
under some specific distributional conditions. E.g. the verbs ‘ to buy and to get would not taken
generally as synonyms, but they are in the following examples: I’ll go to the shop and buy
some bread and I’ll go to the shop and get some bread. Total synonyms, i.e. synonyms where
the members of a synonymic group can replace each other in any given context, without the
slightest alteration in denotative or emotional meaning and connotations. Examples of this type
can be found in specific literature among technical terms peculiar to this or that branch of
knowledge. Thus in linguistics the term noun and substance, functional affix, flection, inflection
are identical in meaning.
Antonyms may be defined as two or more words of the same language belonging to the
same part of speech and to the same semantic field, identical in style and nearly identical in
distribution, associated and often used together so that their denotative meaning render
contradictory or contrary meanings. Contradictiory notions are mutually opposed and denying
one another, e.g. alive – not dead; impatient – not patient. Contrary notions are also mutually
opposed, but they are gradable: old-young; hot – cold.
Another classification is based on a morphological approach: root or absolute antonyms /
right – wrong/, presence of negative affixes creates derivational antonyms /happy – unhappy/.
Unlike synonyms, antonyms do not differ either in style, emotional colouring or
distribution. They are interchangeable at least in some contexts. The result of this interchange
may be of different kind depending on the conditions of the context. The difference between
absolute and derivational antonyms is not only morphological but also semantic as well.
Many antonyms are expressed by means of the negative particle: clean – not dirty,
shallow – not deep etc.
Syntactic negation by means of this particle is weaker than the lexical antonyms.
Compare : not happy - unhappy, not polite - impolite,
not regular –
irregular etc.
Вопросы для самоконтроля
1/ What do we call synonymic words?
2/ What classification of synonyms do you know?
3/ What do we call antonyms?
4/ What are p0olysemantic words?
5/ How are homonyms are classified?
6/ What is the difference between polysemy and homonyms?
Рекомендуемая литература
1. Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В. Лексикология английского языка. М., 2008
2. Кунин А.В. Фразеология английского языка. М., 1996
3. Зыкова И.В. Практикуи по лексикологии английского языка. М., 2006.
Lecture 13. The Main ways and types of development of the vocabulary.
1. The Semantic change of English words.
2. Types of semantic change: the widening and narrowing of word meaning, functional change.
Metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, euphemism.
Тезисы лекции:
The causes of semantic changes may be grouped under two headings, linguistic and extra-linguistic
ones. Linguistic causes influencing the process of vocabulary adaptation may be paradigmatic and
syntagmatic character. Here we have to do with the constant interaction and interdependence of
differentiation between synonyms, changes taking place in connection with ellipsis and with fixed
contexts and etc.
Differentiation of synonyms is a gradual change observed in the course of language history, e.g. the
word time and tide . They are considered to synonyms. Then tide took on its more limited application to
the shifting waters, and time alone is used in the general sense.
The word beast was borrowed from French into ME. Before it appeared the general word for animal was
deer which after the word beast was introduced became narrowed to its present meaning. No systemic
treatment has been offered for the syntagmatic semantic changes depending on the context.
But such cases exist showing that investigation of the problem is important. One of them is ellipsis.
The qualifying words of a frequent phrase may be omitted: media comes to be used for mass media;
propose for propose marriage; to be expecting for to be expecting a baby; or minerals for mineral waters;
summit – for summit meeting.
The extra-linguistic causes are determined by the social nature of the language. They are observed
in changes of meaning resulting from the development of new notions and things. In other
words ,
extra-linguistic causes of semantic are connected with the development of the human mind.
Language are powerfully affected by social, political, economic, cultural and technical change. The
influence of those factors upon linguistic phenomena is studied by socio-linguistics. It shows that
social factors can influence even structural features of linguistic units: terms of science, for instance,
have a number f specific features as compared to words used in other spheres of human activity.
The word being a linguistic realization of notion, changes with the progress of human consciousness.
This process is reflected in the development of lexical meaning. In the earlier time the word ‘earth’
meant ‘ the ground under people’s feet’, ‘the soil’, but with the progress of science earth came to mean
another meaning, i.e. as a planet. With the development of electrical engineering ‘earth’/n/ means ‘ a
connection of a wire with the earth’.
The word ‘space’ meant ‘extent of time or distance’. Alongside this meaning a new meaning developed
‘the limitless and indefinitely great expanse in which all material object are located’.
All the types of semantic change depend on some comparison of the earlier and new meaning of the
given word.
Most of the linguists more or less follow the diachronic classification of M. Breal and H. Paul in
describing various types of semantic changes. This treatment is therefore traditional.
M. Breal was probably the first to emphasize the fact that in passing from general usage into some
sphere of communication a word as a rule undergoes some sort of specialization of its meaning. The
word case, for instance, alongside its general meaning of ‘ circumstances in which a person or thing is’
possesses special meaning: case in law /a law suit/, case in medicine /a patient, an illness/, case in
grammar / the possessive case, common case/.
When the meaning is specialized , the word can name fewer objects, i.e. have fewer referents. The
reduction of scope accounts for the term ‘narrowing’ we must understand that actually neither the
meaning nor the notion, but the scope of the notion that is narrowed. e.g. OE deor “ wild beast” = Mod.
E deer “ wild ruminant of a particular species”; OE mete “food” = Mod .E meat “ edible flesh” . i.e.
only a particular specious of food. As a special group belonging to the same type one can mention the
formation of proper nouns from common nouns chiefly in toponymics, i.e. place names. E.g. the City –
the business part of London; the Highlands – mountainous part of Scotland.
The process reverse to specialization is termed generalization and widening of meaning. In that case the
scope of the new notion is wider than that of the original one. In most cases generalization is combined
with higher order of abstraction than in the notion expressed by the earlier meaning. The transition from a
concrete meaning to an abstract one is the most frequent feature in the semantic history of words. Thus,
ready = OE rade /a derivative of the verb ridan ‘to ride’ meant ‘ prepared for a ride. Fly originally meant
‘to move through the air with wings’; now it denotes any kind of movement in the air or outer space and
also very quick movement in any medium.
The most frequent transfers of the name of one object to another frequently based on the association
of similarity. These types of transfer are as well known in rhetoric as figures of speech called metaphor
and metonymy. A metaphor is a transfer of name based on the association of similarity, and thus it a
hidden comparison. It presents a method of description which likens on thing to another by referring to it
as if it were some other one.
A cunning person , for instance, is referred to a fox.
A woman may be called a peach, a lemon, a cat, a goose , a lioness etc.
There are two types of metaphors: a poetic metaphor and a linguistic metaphor.
The poetic metaphor is the fruit of the author’s creative imagination, as for example, when England is
called by Shakespeare /in King Richard II/ …”this precious stone set in the silver sea.” In a linguistic
metaphor, especially when it is dead as a result of long usage, the comparison is completely forgotten.
E.g. foot/of a mountain/, leg/ of a table/, eye/of a needle/, nose/ of a boat, ship/ etc
A metonymy is a transfer of mane based on the association of contiguity. /a woman – a skirt/. This
transfer may be conditioned by spatial, temporal, causal, symbolic, instrumental, functional and other
connections. Regular spatial relations are, for instance, present when the name of the place is used for
the people occupying it.
The chair may mean ‘the chairman’, the bar ‘the lawyers’. The word town may denote the inhabitants
of a town and the House – the members of the House of Commons or Lords. There are also the well
known instances of symbol for thing symbolized: the crown for ‘monarchy’, the instrument for the
product: hand for ‘handwriting”. Words denoting the material from which an article is made are often
used to denote the particular article: glass, iron, copper, nickel are well known examples. A place of its
own within metonymical change is occupied by the so-called functional change. This type has its own
peculiarities: in this case the shift is between names of things substituting one another in human practice.
Thus, the early instrument for writing was a feather or more exactly a quill. OE pen – O.Fr. penne –
Italian penna – Latin penna meant “feather”. We write with fountain-pen that made of different materials
and have nothing in common with feathers exept the function, but the name remains. Another example:
the steersman was earlier called pilot ; with the coming of aviation a person who operates the flying
controls of an aircraft was also called pilot.
Within the diachronic approach the phenomenon of euphemism /Greek eu – ‘good’ and pheme – voice/
has been studied by many linguists, many of them classified it as taboo, i.e. a prohibition meant as a
safeguard against supernatural forces.
With people of developed
culture and civilization euphemism is quite different, it is dictated by social usage, etiquette, tact,
diplomatic consideration and political propaganda.
From the semasiological point of view euphemism is important, because meanings with unpleasant
connotations appear in words formerly neutral and as a result of their repeated use instead of words that
are for some reason unmentionable. E.g. deceased – dead’, deranged – mad’
Вопросы для самоконтроля
1/ What are the causes of semantic change?
2/ What changes are the language powerfully affected?
3/ What types of semantic change do you know?
4/ What is specialization?
5/ What types of metaphors do you know?
6/ What is metonymy? Give examples.
Рекомендуемая литература
1. Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В. Лексикология английского языка. М., 2008
2. Кунин А.В. Фразеология английского языка. М., 1996
3. Зыкова И.В. Практикуи по лексикологии английского языка. М., 2006.
Lecture 14. Native words and borrowed words in the English lang.
Тезисы лекции:
A native word is a word which belongs to the original English word stock, as known as from the
available manuscripts of the old English period. A loan word is, borrowed or borrowings is a word taken
over from another language and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm in meaning according
to the standards of the English language.
The native words are further subdivided by diachronic linguistics into those of the Indo-European stock
and those of Common Germanic origin. The words having cognates in the vocabularies of different IndoEuropean languages from the oldest layer. It has been noticed that they readily fall into definite semantic
groups. Among them we find terms of kinship : father, mother, son, daughter, brother; words naming the
most important objects and phenomena of nature: sun, moon, star, wind, water, wood, hill, stone, tree;
names of animals and birds: bull, cat, crow, goose, olf; parts of human body: arm, ear, eye, foot, heart;
some of the most frequent verbs are also of Indo-European common stock: bear, come, sit, stand and
others. The adjectives of this group denote concrete physical properties: hard, quick, slow, red, white.
Most numerals also belong here.
A much bigger part of this native vocabulary layer is formed by words of the Common German stock,
i.e. of words having parallels in German, Norwegian, Dutch etc., but none in Russian or French. It
contains a greater number of semantic groups. The following list may serve as an illustration of their
general character. The nouns are: summer, winter, storm, rain, ice, ground, bridge, house, shop, room,
coal iron etc. The verbs are bake, burn, buy, drive hear, keep, learn, make,meet etc.
Borrowings enter the language in two ways: through oral speech /by immediate contact between the
people/ and through written speech/ by indirect contact i.e. through books/. Oral borrowings took place
chiefly in the early period of history, whereas in recent times written borrowings gained importance.
Words borrowed orally / e.g. inch, mill, street/ are usually short and they undergo considerable changes
in the act of adoption. Written borrowings/ e.g. French. Communiqué belles-lettres etc./ preserve their
spelling and some peculiarities of their sound-form.
Though borrowed words undergo changes in the adopting language they preserve some of their former
peculiarities for a comparatively long period. This makes it possible to work out some criteria for
determining whether the word belongs to the borrowed element.
Standard English - is the official language of Great Britain at schools and Universities, used by the press,
the radio and the television and spoken by the educated people may be defined as that form of English
which is current and literary, substantially uniform and recognized as acceptable wherever English is
spoken or understand. Its vocabulary is contrasted to dialect words belonging to various dialects. Local
dialects are variants of the English language peculiar to some districts and having no normalized literary
form. Regional variants possessing a literary form are called variants. In Great Britain there are two
variants, Scottish English and Irish English< and five main groups of dialects: Northern, Midland,
Eastern, Western and Southern. Every group contain several (up to ten) dialects. One of the best known
Southern dialects is Cockney, the regional dialect of London. As spoken by the uneducated, Cockney
differs from Standard English not only in pronunciation but also in vocabulary, morphology and syntax.
G.B. Shaw;splay ”Pigmalion” clearly renders this level of Cockey as spoken at that time when the play
was written. Some specifically Cockney words and set expressions are: balmy/ barmy, noun or adjective
meaning ‘ mentally unbalanced’, barrikin meaning ‘chatter’, garn instead of ‘go on!’, tanner for
‘sixpence’, toff ‘a person of upper class’, up the pole ‘drunk’ , you’ll get yourself disliked ‘ a
remonstrance to a person behaving very badly’.
The variety of English spoken in the USA has received the name of American English. American
English can not be called a dialect although it is a regional variety, because it has a literary normalized
form called Standard American, whereas by definition given above a dialect has no literary form. Neither
it is a separate language, as some American authors, like H.Mencken, claimed, because it has neither
grammar nor vocabulary of its own.
An American variants of English may be defined as a word or set expressions peculiar to the English
language as spoken in the USA. E. g. cookie ‘a biscuit’, guess ‘ think’, store ‘ shop’ , frame house ‘ a
house consisting of a skeleton and timber’ etc.
The American variant of the English language differ from British English in pronunciation, in
some minor features of grammar, but chiefly in vocabulary.
Here are the most marked differences between British English and American English in spelling,
pronunciation and stress:
Difference in spelling
British English
aeroplane
axe
cheque
cigarette
defence
practice (n)
programme
cosy
American English
airplane
ax
check
cigaret
defense
practise (n)
program
cozy
Stress difference
British English
American English
ad'ress
'adress
ciga'rette
'cigaret
'frontier
fron'tier
la'boratory
'laboratory
maga'zine
'magazine
re'seach
'reseach
trans'late
'translate
week'end
'weekend
Вопросы для самоконтроля
1/ What are the native words?
2/ How are the native words classified?
3/ How do borrowed words enter a language?
4/ Give some examples of Common Germanic stock?
Рекомендуемая литература
1. Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В. Лексикология английского языка. М., 2008
2. Кунин А.В. Фразеология английского языка. М., 1996
3. Зыкова И.В. Практикуи по лексикологии английского языка. М., 2006.
Lecture 15. Morphological structure of English words. The system of English word
formation.
1. Morphemes. Free and bound morphemes. Morphological analysis of words. Types of affixes.
2. Main types of word formation: Word composition. Conversion.
3. Miner types of word formation./ Shortening(Clipping). Backformation. Blending. Reduplication
Тезисы лекции:
Besides the semasiological point of view words may also be distinguished from other fundamental
language unit, namely, the morpheme. A morpheme is also an association of a given meaning with a
given sound pattern. But unlike words it is not independent.. Morphemes occur in speech only as
constituent parts of words. Although words may consist of a single morpheme.
Morphemes are
indivisible into smaller meaningful units. That’s why the morpheme may be defined as minimum
meaningful language unit.
The term morpheme is derived from Greek ‘morphe’ meaning ‘form’. A form is said to be free if it may
stand alone without changing its meaning; if not, it is a bound form, so called because it is always bound
to something else. For example, if we compare the words ‘ sportive’ and ‘elegant ‘ and their parts, we
see that sport, sportive, elegant may occur alone as utterances, whereas eleg- , -ive , - ant are bound
forms, because they never occur alone. A word is said is , by Bloomfield’s definition ‘ a minimum free
form’. A morpheme is said to be either free or bound . According to the role they play in constructing
words morphemes are subdivided into; root and affixes . The latter are further subdivided according to
their position, into prefixes, suffixes and infixes , according to their function and meaning , into
derivational and functional.
When a derivational or functional affix is stripped from the word, what remains is called a stem. / or a
stem base/. The stem expresses the lexical and part of speech meaning. For the word heartily and for the
paradigm heart /sing./ - hearts /pl./ the stem may be represented as ‘heart’. This stem is a single
morpheme, it contains nothing but the root, so it is a simple stem. It is also a free stem because it is
homonymous to the word heart. A stem may be also defined as the part of the word that remains
unchanged throughout its paradigm. For example, the stem of the paradigm hearty – heartier – the
heartiest is hearty. It is a free stem, but as it consists of a root morpheme and an affix, it is not simple,
but derived. Thus, a stem containing one or more affixes is a derived stem.
Bound stems are especially characteristic of loan /borrowed/ words. The point may be illustrated by the
following French borrowings: charity, courage, coward, distort, involve . After the affixes of these are
taken away the remaining elements are char-, cour-, cow-, - tort, -volve, which do not coincide with any
semantically related independent words.
Unlike roots, affixes are always bound forms. A suffix is a derivational morpheme following the stem
and forming a new derivative in a different part of speech or a different word class. Compare suffixes - en, -y ,- less in the words hearten, hearty, heartless. A prefix is a derivational morpheme standing before
the root and modifying the meaning . Compare e.g. hearten – dishearten. It is not only with verbs that a
prefix may serve to distinguish one part of speech from another. E.g. earth /n./ - unearth /v./
/отыскивать., sleep /n/ - asleep /v /. An infix is a affix placed within the word, like – n- in the word
stand. But this type is not productive form.
Within the parts of speech suffixes have been classified according to lexico-grammatical groups and
semantic fields, and according to the type of stems they are added to.
Noun-forming suffixes: -age : breakage, mileage, - ance /ence/ : assistance, reference, -ant /ent/ :
student, disinfectant , - dom: freedom ,kingdom ,-er : writer, reader, - ess; actress , lioness, - hood :
childhood , boyhood , -ing : building, meaning, - ion /sion , tion /ation/: tension , creation, explanation , ism /icism/ heroism, criticism, - ist : novelist, typist, -ment: govenment, development, - ness: kindness,
tenderness , - ship : frienshjip, - ity : society.
Adjective-forming suffixes: - able/-ible/ ; unbearable, audible; -al ; formal; -ic : poetic ; ical:
ethical; - ant/ –ent/ : important , dependent ; - ary ; revolutionary ;
ate/ete/ : accurate, compelete ; ed –d/ ; wooded ; - ful : delightful ; -an /ian/ :african , ish : Irish, childish ; -ive : active; -less : useless
, - like : lifelike ; - ly : manly; ous/ ious/ : curious, tremendous; - some : troublesome , tiresome; - y:
cloudy , dressy.
Numeral-forming suffixes: - fold : twofold; - teen : fifteen; -th: ninth; - ty: sixty.
Verb-forming suffixes: -ate: facilitate, -er : glimmer; -en: shorten, -fy /-ify/: terrify; - ize:
specialize, -ish : establish.
Adverb-forming suffixes: –ly: coldly; -ward / wards/: upwards, northwards,
-wise /likewise/
.
Derivational morphemes affixed before the stem are called prefixes. Prefixes modify the lexical meaning
of the stem , but they seldom affect its basic lexico-grammatical component. Therefore both the simple
word and its prefixed derivative mostly belong to the same part of speech. The prefix mis- when added to
verbs, conveys the meaning ‘wrongly’, ‘badly’, it does not suggest any other part of speech but the verb
: behave- misbehave , inform – misinform , lead – mislead, pronounce –mispronounce.
The prefix pre- and post- refer to time and order. E.g. historic – prehistoric, pay – prepay, graduate –
postgraduate .the prefixes in- , a- , ab -, super -, sub -, trans – modify the stem for place. E.g. income,
subway , transatlantic. Several prefixes serve to modify the meaning of the stem for degree and size.
E.g. over- and under- /overfeed , undergo/. The group of negative prefixes is so numerous. They are: de, dis-, in - , im-, il-, ir-, non-, un-. The most frequent is the prefix is the prefix un-. e.g. happy – unhappy;
kind – unhappy , even – uneven etc. : bind – unbind , do – undo , pack – unpack. A very frequent prefix
with a great combing power is re- denoting repetition of the action expressed by the stem. It may be
added to almost any verb or verbal noun. e.g. rearrange, recast, rewrite etc. The prefixes pre- , post- ,
non-, anti- and some other Romanaic and Greek prefixes are very productive in present-day English.
E.g. anti-war, pre-war, post-war, non-party etc.
From the point of view of etimology affixes are subdivided into two main classes: the native affixes and
the borrowed affixes. By native affixes we mean those that exist in English from the OE period or were
formed from Old English words, for example, - dom, - hood, -ful, - less, - like, - ship,- en, - ing, - ish, let, -ly, - ness, -some, -teen, -th, -wise, -y etc..
The suffixes of foreign are classified according to their source into Latin / -able/ ible, - -ant/ent,/, French
/ -age, - ance/ence, - anct/ency, -ard, -ate,- fy/ and Greek / -ist, ism, ite/ etc., - ful, - like, - ship, -en, - ing,
- ish, -let, -ly, -ness, - som, - teen, - th, -wise, - y etc.
Word composition is one of the most productive way of word formation in the English language. It
consists in forming a new word by joining two stems together and getting a separate lexical unit. e.g. a
tame-table, a blackboard, a bluebell etc.Compound words are words consisting of at least two stems
which in the language as free free forms. In a compound word the immediate constituents obtain
integrity and structural cohesion that make their function in a sentence as a separate lexical units. Eg. a
maid-servant, a sunbeam .
There are two important peculiarities distinguishing compounds in English from compounds in other
languages. Firstly, both immediate constituents of an English compound are as free forms, i.e. they can be
used as independent words with a distinct meaning of their own. The condition of differentiation will
be different but the sound pattern is the same, except for the stress. The point may be illustrated by a
brief list of the most frequently used compounds studied in every elementary course of English:
afternoon, anyway, anybody, birthday, day-off, downstairs, fountain -pen, looking-glass etc. It is common
knowledge that the combining elements in Russian are as a rule bound forms / руководство/, in English
combinations like Anglo-Saxon, politico-economical where the first elements are bound forms, occur
very rarely and seem to be avoided.
The second feature that should attract attention is that the regular pattern for the English language is a
two-stem compound. But an exception to this rule is observed when combining element is represented
by a form of word stem, as in mother-in-law,, bread-and-butter, deaf-and-dumb etc.
The classification according to the type of composition permits us to establish the following groups: 1/
The prominent type is used without connecting elements: headache, heart-beat, heart break/n/, heartbroken /adj/. 2/ Composition with a vowel or a consonant as a linking element. The examples are very
few: Afro-Asian, handicraft, statesman; 3/ Compounds with linking elements represented by preposition
or conjunction stress: matter-of-fact, son-in-law, pepper-and-salt, up-and-down etc. The classification of
compounds according to the structure of immediate constituents distinguishes: 1/ Compounds consisting
of simple stems : film-star; 2/ Compounds where at least one of the constituents is a derived stem: chainsmoker; 3/ Compounds where at least one of the constituents is a clipped stem: maths-mistress, H- bag,
X-mas / Christmas/ etc.; 4/ Compounds where at least one of the constituents is a compound stem:
wastepaper-basket.
As a type of word-building shortening of words is also called clipping. This way os word building has
achieved a high productivity noawadays, especially in American English. Shortenings are produced in
two different ways. The first is to make a new word from a syllable of the original ord. The latter amy
lose its beginning (e.g. “phone” from telephone, “fence” from defence), its ending (“ hols’ from holidays,
“vac” from vacatins), or both the beginning or ending (“flu” ftrom influenza, “frigde” from refrigerator)
etc. The second way of shortening is to make a new word from the initial letters of a word group: UNO
(United Nations Organization), MP (Member of Parliament), BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation)
etc.
Blending is a word which is made out of the shortened forms of two other words such as brunch
(breakfast + lunch), smog(smoke + fog), Eurovision (European+ television). Back formation is a term
of diachronic linguistics. It denotes the derivation of new words by subtracting a real or supposed affix
from existing words through misinterpretation of their structure. The most productive type of backformation in present day English is derivation from compounds that have suffixes – er or –ing as their
last element. e.g. to thought-read – thought-reader – though-reading. Or some other examples: baby-sit,
house-clean, housekeep, tape-recorded etc.
In reduplication new words are made by doubling a stem, either without any change any phonetic
changes as in bye-bye (for good bye), or witha variation of the root vowel or consonant as in ping-pong
(table- tennis), chit-chat (gossip), silly-shally (hesitation,indecision) etc. Most words made by
reduplication represent informal groups: colloquialisms and slang. e.g. walkie-talkie (“ a portable radio” ,
riff-raff (the worthless element of society) etc.
Вопросы для самоконтроля
1/ What is the morpheme?
2/ How are morphemes subdivided according to the role they play in constructing words?
3/ What is the difference between the derivational and functional affixes?
4/ What are the main noun forming suffixes?
5/ Name productive negative prefixes.
6/ What are the main types of word formation in the English language?
7/ What are the important peculiarities of distinguishing English compounds from compounds in other
languages?
8/ ame the main structural types of compound nouns in English?
9/ hat are the non-productive types of word formation in English?
Рекомендуемая литература
1. Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В. Лексикология английского языка. М., 2008
2. Кунин А.В. Фразеология английского языка. М., 1996
3. Зыкова И.В. Практикуи по лексикологии английского языка. М., 2006.
Lecture 16. Territorial differenciation of the vocabulary.
1.Territorial variants of the English language. Standard English.
2.Local dialects. American English. Its peculiarities. Other variants of the English language.
3. Neutral words, special terminology. Professional vocabulary. Colloquial words. Slang.
Standard English - is the official language of Great Britain at schools and Universities, used by the press,
the radio and the television and spoken by the educated people may be defined as that form of English
which is current and literary, substantially uniform and recognized as acceptable wherever English is
spoken or understand. Its vocabulary is contrasted to dialect words belonging to various dialects. Local
dialects are variants of the English language peculiar to some districts and having no normalized literary
form. Regional variants possessing a literary form are called variants. In Great Britain there are two
variants, Scottish English and Irish English< and five main groups of dialects: Northern, Midland,
Eastern, Western and Southern. Every group contain several (up to ten) dialects. One of the best known
Southern dialects is Cockney, the regional dialect of London. As spoken by the uneducated, Cockney
differs from Standard English not only in pronunciation but also in vocabulary, morphology and syntax.
G.B. Shaw;splay ”Pigmalion” clearly renders this level of Cockey as spoken at that time when the play
was written. Some specifically Cockney words and set expressions are: balmy/ barmy, noun or adjective
meaning ‘ mentally unbalanced’, barrikin meaning ‘chatter’, garn instead of ‘go on!’, tanner for
‘sixpence’, toff ‘a person of upper class’, up the pole ‘drunk’ , you’ll get yourself disliked ‘ a
remonstrance to a person behaving very badly’.
The variety of English spoken in the USA has received the name of American English. American
English can not be called a dialect although it is a regional variety, because it has a literary normalized
form called Standard American, whereas by definition given above a dialect has no literary form. Neither
it is a separate language, as some American authors, like H.Mencken, claimed, because it has neither
grammar nor vocabulary of its own.
An American variants of English may be defined as a word or set expressions peculiar to the English
language as spoken in the USA. E. g. cookie ‘a biscuit’, guess ‘ think’, store ‘ shop’ , frame house ‘ a
house consisting of a skeleton and timber’ etc.
The American variant of the English language differ from British English in pronunciation, in
some minor features of grammar, but chiefly in vocabulary.
Here are the most marked differences between British English and American English in spelling,
pronunciation and stress:
Difference in spelling
British English
aeroplane
axe
cheque
cigarette
defence
practice (n)
programme
cosy
American English
airplane
ax
check
cigaret
defense
practise (n)
program
cozy
Stress difference
British English
American English
ad'ress
'adress
ciga'rette
'cigaret
'frontier
fron'tier
la'boratory
'laboratory
maga'zine
'magazine
re'seach
'reseach
trans'late
'translate
week'end
'weekend
Вопросы для самоконтроля
1/ What variants of the English language do you know?
2/ What is Cockney?
3/ How many dialects are there in England?
4/ Give some examples of differences in the vocabulary system of the British English and American
English?
Рекомендуемая литература
1. Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В. Лексикология английского языка. М., 2008
2. Кунин А.В. Фразеология английского языка. М., 1996
3. Зыкова И.В. Практикуи по лексикологии английского языка. М., 2006.
Lecture 17. Phraseological units (Set expressions).
Classification of set expressions.
1.Various approaches to the theory of phraseological units.
2.Main characteristic features of phraseological units.
3.Structural and semantic classifications of phraseological units. Proverbs, sayings, cliches.
Тезисы лекции:
Opinions differ as to how word groups and praseological units should be defined, classified
,described and analyzed. The word “phraseology”, for instance, has very different meanings in our
country and in Great Britain or the USA. . In Russian linguistics literature the term has come to be used
for the whole ensemble of expressions where the meaning of one element is dependent on the other,
irrespective of the structure and property of the unit. /V.V.Vinagradov/. With other authers it depends ob
such set expressions which do not possess expressiveness or emotional colouring /A.I. Smirnitsky/, and
also vica versa, only those that are imaginative, expressive and emotional./ I.V.Arnold/. O.S.Akhmanva
has repeatedly insisted on the semantic integtity of such phrases prevailing over the structural
separateness of their elements. A.V. Koonin lays the stress on the structural separateness of the elements
in a phraseological unit, on the change of meaning in the whole as compared its elements taken
separately and on a certain minimum stability. All these authors use the same word “phraseology’ to
denote the branch of linguistics studying the word group they have in mind. In English and American
linguistics the situation is very different. No special branch of study exists and the term “phraseology” is
a stylistic one meaning according to Webster’s dictionary “mode /type/ of expression, peculiarities of
diction, i.e. choice and arrangement of words and phrases characteristic of some characteristic of some
authors or some literary work”
The term ‘set expression’ is on the contrary more definite, because the 1-st element points out the most
important characteristic of these units, namely their stability, their fixed and ready made nature. The
word ’expression’ suits our purpose because it is a general term including words, groups od words and
sentences, so that both up and downs (успехи и неудачи) and that’s a horse of another colour (Это
совсем другое дело.) are expressions. That’s why the term “set expression” is also frequently used
instead of phraseological units or other terms..
According to the type of motivation and other above mentioned features, three types of phraseological
units are suggested: 1/ phraseological fusions represent as their name suggests the highest stage of
blending together. The meaning of components is completely absorbed by the meaning of the whole by
its expressiveness and emotional properties. E.g. tit for tat / око за око зуб за зуб/, to set one’s cap at
smb. / to try or attract a man/, to show the white feather /to betray one’s cowardice/ etc. Phraseological
fusions are specific for every language and do not lend themselves to literal translations and into other
languages.
Phraseological units are much more numerous. They are clearly motivated. Their meaning can be
usually perceived through the metaphoric meaning of the whole phraseological unit. The emotional
quality is based on the image created by the whole as in the following examples: to stick /stand/ to one’s
gun / to refuse to change one’s statements or opinions/, to sink or swim / to fail or succeed/, in deep water
/ to be in trouble, danger/, to sail under false colours / to pretend to be what one is not/. Another
characteristic feature of the type is the possibility of synonimic substitution, which can be only very
limited. Some of them are easily translated and even international, e.g. to know the way the wind is
blowing, to show one’s teeth, to wash one’s dirty linen in public etc.
The third group in this classification is the phraseological combination is the phraseological
combinations.They are not only motivated but contain one component used in its direct meaning while
the other is used figuratively. E.g. to meet the demand, to meet the necessity, to meet the requirements,
to lose one’s head / to be at a loss/, to lose one’s heart to smb. / to fall in love/, to sit on the fence / to
discuss politics/ etc
Вопросы для самоконтроля
1/ How are set expressions characterized in the English language?
2/ What linguists investigated the problem of set expressions?
3/ What types of set expressions do you know?
4/ How A.V. Koonin classified English set expressions?
Рекомендуемая литература
1. Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В. Лексикология английского языка. М., 2008
2. Кунин А.В. Фразеология английского языка. М., 1996
3. Зыкова И.В. Практикуи по лексикологии английского языка. М., 2006.
Lecture 18. Lexicography. Types of dictionaries.
1. The Theory of lexicography.
2. Types and structure of dictionaries.
Тезисы лекции:
Lexicography is an important branch of applied linguistics dealing with the theory and
practice of compiling dictionaries. It has a common object of study with lexicology as
both of them describe the vocabulary of a language. The difference between them lies in
the degree of systematization and completeness each of them is able achieve.
Lexicology studies semantic relationships of words and any formal phonological or
grammatical devices by which they may be rendered. It cannot , however, claim any
completeness as regards the units themselves, because the number of these units being very
great , systematization and completeness could not be achieved simultaneously.
The province of lexicology, on the other hand, is the semantic, formal and functional
description of all individual words. Dictionaries aim at more a less complete description,
but in doing so cannot attain systematic treatment, so that every dictionary entry presents
its problem as it were an independent problem.
Lexicologists present their
material in a sequence depending upon their views
concerning the vocabulary, whereas lexicographers have to arrange it according to a purely
external characteristic, namely, alphabetically.
It goes without saying that neither of these branches of linguistics could develop
successfully without the other.
The term dictionary is used to denote a book listing words of a language with their
meanings and often with data regarding pronunciation, usage or origin .
There are also dictionaries that concentrate their attention upon only one of these
aspects: pronouncing / or phonetical / dictionaries and etymological dictionaries.
For dictionaries in which the words and their definition belong to the same language
the term unilingual or explanatory is used, whereas bilingual or translation dictionaries are
those that explain words by giving their equivalents in other language. Multilingaul
dictionaries are not numerous, they serve chiefly the purpose of comparing synonyms and
terminology in various languages.
Both bilingual and unilingual dictionaries can be general and special. General
dictionaries represent the vocabulary as a whole with a degree of completeness depending
upon the scope and bulk of the book in question.
General dictionaries are contrasted to special dictionaries whose aim is to cover a
certain specific part of the vocabulary. Special dictionaries may be further subdivided
depending on whether the words are chosen according to the sphere of human activity in
which thay are used / technical dictionaries/ , the type of the units themselves / e.g/
phraseological dictionaries/ or the relationships existing between them /e.g. dictionaries of
synonyms, antonyms, homonyms/ etc.
English lexicography is probably the richest in the world with respect to variety and
scope of the dictionaries published. The demand for a dictionary is very great.
A dictionary is the most widely used reference book in English homes and business
offices Correct pronunciation and spelling are of great importance because they are
necessary foe efficient communication.
Etymological dictionaries trace present day words to the oldest forms available,
establish their primary meanings by means of comparative-historical method.
Вопросы для самоконтроля
1/ What does lexicography deal with?
2/ What types of dictionaries do you know?
3/ What are special dictionaries?
4/ What dictionaries do general dictionaries include?
Рекомендуемая литература
1. Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В. Лексикология английского языка. М., 2008
2. Кунин А.В. Фразеология английского языка. М., 1996
3. Зыкова И.В. Практикуи по лексикологии английского языка. М., 2006.
Lecture 19.
The Subject matter of Theoretical grammar.
The Object of theoretical grammar. Grammatical forms and grammatical meaning< grammatical
category.
Word forms. Morphology. Syntax.
Тезисы лекции:
Pre-normative grammar (William Bullokar's "Brief grammar of English" 1585) is the age of pre-scientific
grammar. Normative (prescriptive) grammar (middle of 18th -19th century) stated strict rules of
grammatical usage. The most influential grammar of the period was R. Lowth's "Short Introduction to
English grammar" 1762. The best prescriptive grammars of this period, like C.P. Manson's "English
grammar" (1858) and A. Bain's "Higher English grammar (1863) paved the way for the first scientific
grammar of English. Classical scientific grammar appeared after the description of the grammatical
system, especially that of syntax, had been completed (the end of 19th century) A need was felt for a
scientific explanation of the grammatical phenomena. The appearance of H.Sweet's "New English
grammar. Logical and Historical" (1891) met this demand.
English grammars in the 20 th century:
The first is from the beginning of the 20th century till the 1940' s, when there were only two types of
grammars in use - the prescriptive , the classical scientific, a. Prescriptive grammar in the 20th century
changed very little; and some 19th century grammars continued to be reprinted.
OBJECT OF THE THEORETICAL GRAMMAR is the language (its structure). The difference
between theoretical grammar and practical grammar: a. The purpose of a practical description
(Practical .grammar) is to supply the student with the knowledge of the grammatical structure of
language in terms of standards of correctness (rules that should be obeyed) as the basis for the creation
of the student's general grammatical aptitude, b. A theoretical description (theoretical grammar) is
aimed at: 1) elucidating the fundamentals of the grammatical structure of language in accordance with
the latest developments in linguistics; 2) initiating the students into most important problems of the
grammatical structure of language; 3) developing the students ability to digest scientific
information, from judgements of their own and apply their knowledge to their teaching practice.
Generally speaking the aim of theoretical grammar is to present a systematic study of the grammatical
structure of Modern English and to introduce different views of language.
The main two parts of theoretical grammar are Morphology and Syntax. Morphology deals with
morphemes and words their structure and classification. Syntax deals with the phrases, sentences and
supra-sentential units.
Language in the narrow sense of the word is a system of means of expression. The structure of
various units and the classes they form (paradigmatic relation) are the sphere of language. Alan Gardiner
writes: "Language is a collective term , and embraces in its compass all those items of knowledge which
enable a speaker to make effective use of word-signs. Speech in the narrow sense should be understood as
the manifestation of the system of language in the process of intercourse. The combinations the units form
in the process of communication (syntagmatic relations) are the sphere of speech . Syntagmatic relations are
immediate linear relations between units in a segmental sequence, e.g.: I gave him an interesting book
yesterday. (/ gave - predicative relation, gave a book -objective relation, an interesting book -attributive
relation, gave yesterday -adverbial relation). Paradigmatic relations are the relations between elements
of the system outside its surroundings, the relation based on formal and functional properties, e.g.: gave giving, given; gave, took, wrote, (past tense, simple) and so on. The verb "give" is included into a
paradigm of all irregular verbs, e.g.: go, give, take, see, etc.
Morphology deals with the structure, classification and combinability of words. Morph is the shortest sequence of
phonemes, bearing some definite meaning, indivisible into smaller meaningful segments, and regularly repeated in
different expressions: "receive, conceive, perceive, deceive". Many morphs, which have the same meaning and stand
in relation of complementary distribution, are called allomorphs: "clear, clearly, clearness, clarity. clarify". The
morphs /clear/ and /clar/ have the same meaning «ясность», can be connected only with other definite morphs (clear
-/y, clar-iry). so they form one and the same morpheme The smallest meaningful segmental component of the word is
the morpheme. Word is a nominative unit of language; it is formed by morphemes; it enters the lexicon as its
elementary component (i.e. a component indivisible into smaller segments as regards its nominative function); together
with other nominative units the word is used for the formation of the sentence - a unit of information in the
communicative process . A grammatical word-morpheme is a grammatical morpheme which has the properties of
both a word and a grammatical morpheme, which is loosely connected with a lexical morpheme and help to form an
analytical form of the word, e.g.: shall speak.
Classification of the morpheme:Traditional classification
(lexical morpheme) - a division of the word into a root morpheme and derivational morphemes (prefixes, infixes
and suffixes).Distributional classification (grammatical morphemes — inflexions). Inflexions express different
grammatical meanings and are used to build up different forms of the word thus serving to connect words into
coherent utterances.l. On the basis of the degree of self dependence: "free" (boy) -"bound boys);. On the basis of
formal presentation . "covert" or "zero"(boy) - "overt(boys) The zero(covert) morpheme is considered to be an
implicit grammatical suffix which is not seen in the word, but which we know can be there if we want to create this or
that grammatical form of this particular word; .On the basis of linear characteristics "continuous 1* (invited) "discontinuous" (is invited). A discontinuous morpheme consists of a function word and a form-building suffix in a.
notional verb or a replacive morpheme,.e.g.: is writing, и spoken , On the basis of grammatical alteration: "additive"
(looked) "replacive" (dr-i-ve, dr-o-ve, dr-i-ven); On the basis of segmental relation: segmental (consists of
phonemes) - supra-segmental (intonation counters, accents, pauses).Typical features of analytical forms:1,
Barkhudarov L.S. - a. The presence of a discontinuous morpheme, b. a unit whose overall meaning is not a mere sum
of the meaning of the parts; c. Elements function as a grammatical form of a single word. G.Curme and Deuthcbein
treat a combination of a preposition (which is a function word) and a noun as an analytical form because such
combinations express the same relation as cases. B.A. Ilysh - a. Comparatively few grammatical inflexions; b. A
limited use of morpho-phonemic alteration; c. A wide use of prepositions to connect words into sentences; d. A
prominent use of word order to denote grammatical relations. GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY.There are ten
grammatical categories: tense, voice, aspect, time correlation, mood, number, person, case, gender,
degrees of comparison. Grammatical meaning is the significance of a certain relation expressed by a
dependent part of a word (inflexion) or a significance of a certain arrangement of elements. E.g.: "time"
is grammatical meaning of the grammatical category of tense. Grammatical form is the form of the
word which expresses the grammatical meaning, e.g.: "-ed" is the grammatical form (marked form) of
the grammatical category of tense. Grammatical category is a system of expressing a generalized
grammatical meaning by means of the paradigmatic correlation of grammatical forms. The paradigmatic
correlations of grammatical forms in a category are expressed by the so-called "grammatical
oppositions". Grammatical opposition (in the linguistic sense) may be determined as a generalized
correlation of lingual forms by means of which a certain function is expressed. The correlated elements
(members) of the opposition must possess two types of features: common features and differential
features. Common features serve as the basis of contrast, while differential features immediately
express the function in question. In various contextual conditions, one member of an opposition can be
used in the position of the other; counter-member. This phenomenon should be treated under the
heading of "Oppositional reduction" or "oppositional substitution". The first version of like term
("reduction") points out the fact that the opposition in this case is contracted, losing its formal distinctive
force. The second version of the term ("substitution") shows the very process by which the opposition
is reduced, namely, the use of one member instead of the other.
The difference between the grammatical meaning and the grammatical form may be shown as well
in the terms of; the plane of the content (meaning) and the plane of expression (form). The plane of
content comprises the purely semantic elements contained in language, while the plane of expression
comprises the material (formal) units of language taken by themselves, apart from the meaning
rendered by them. The two planes are inseparably connected, so that no meaning can be realized without
some material means of expression.
a) One form may express different meanings, e.g.:-s/-es renders the grammatical meaning of the third
person singular of the verbal present tense (He speaks), the plural of the noun (cases), the possessive
form of the noun (Tom's), the absolute form of the pronouns (hers).
b) One meaning may be expressed by several forms, e.g.: Future action may be expressed by the Future
indefinite: I’ll look out for him Future Continuous: Now that your assistant's gone you will be looking
for someone to do this job. Present Indefinite: What time do we arrive. Present Continuous: We are
waiting men to work this week , expression with modal verbs: That ought to be a beauty, expression
with "going to...": I'm going to pomp to find Tommy.
Рекомендуемая литература
1. Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В. Лексикология английского языка. М., 2008
2. Кунин А.В. Фразеология английского языка. М., 1996
3. Зыкова И.В. Практикуи по лексикологии английского языка. М., 2006.
Lecture 20. Parts of speech.
1. Classifiaction of parts of speech.
2. Notional and functional parts of speech . Lexical , grammatical and syntactic chracteristics of parts of
speech..
The words of language, depending on various formal and semantic features, are divided into
grammatically relevant sets or classes. The traditional grammatical classes of words are called "parts of
speech". Since the word is distinguished not only by grammatical, but also by semantico-lexemic
properties, some scholars refer to parts of speech as "lexico-grammatical" series of words, or as "lexicogrammatical categories"
Thus a part of speech is a class of lexemes characterised by 1). Its lexicogrammatical meaning, 2) its lexico-grammatical morphemes (stem-building elements), 3) its grammatical
categories or its paradigms, 4) its combinability, and 5) its functions in a sentence
There are three criteria of classification of parts of speech: meaning, form and function,
distinguished by H.Sweet. Russian linguistics (B Ilysh, M.Y Blokh., L.Jofik) now divide all parts of
speech into functional and notional. Nowadays there are distinguished from 12 to 16 parts of speech and
even more. They are nouns, verbs, adjective, pronouns, adverbs, numerals, adlinks (the category of state),
modal words, prepositions, conjunctions, particles, interjections, articles, response words (yes, no) and
others. There may be more than 14 parts of speech if we take into account the so-called "function
words". The demarcation hue between function words and all other words is not clear.
4. Foreign scholars introduce such a term as "determiner", which embraces several lasses of words that
modify nouns - the definite and the indefinite articles, the demonstratives, adjectives and pronouns of
indefinite number and quantity fttuu].
The difference between notional and functional parts of speech: Notional - 1. Unite words
complete nominating meaning,, 2. Have specific morphological categories in the changeability of
forms, specific derivational
affixes, 3.
Are characterized by independent functions in the sentence and peculiar
combinability.
Functional - 1. Unite words of incomplete nominating meaning,
2. Unchangeable, 3.Are characterised by dependent functions in the sentence and specific
combinability.
Each part of speech after its identification is further subdivided into subseries in accord ' with
various particular semantico-functional and formal features of constituent words. This subdivision is
called "subcategorization" or "classes" of parts of speech. Thus nouns are subcategorised into
proper and common, animate and inanimate, countable and uncountable, concrete and abstract.
NOUN
Noun -is characterized by the following features: semantically – it has the meaning
of substance
morphologically , – a) the category of number,case and gender, b) certain word-building suffixes,
syntactically- a) performs the function of a subject, object, predicative, attribute, adverbial
modifier, b) has specific combinability.
Category of number, the grammatical meaning is oneness and more than oneness. The
grammatical category of Number is a linguistic representation of the conceptual category of
quantitiveness, which reflects the objective category of Quantity. The category of number is the system
of oppositions such as: a girl-girls, foot-feet.Nouns like-milk geometry, self-possession - having no
plural opposites are usually called by the Latin name -singularia tantum. Nouns like - outskirts, clothes,
goods - having no singular opposites are known as ipluralia tantum.
Category of case of Noun. Case is the category of noun expressing relation between the thing
denoted by the noun and other things. Case is the immanent morphological category of the noun
manifested in the forms noun declension and showing the relations of the nounal referent to other
objects and phenomena.
Different points of view on the problem of the category of case:
Two-case system: 1. Classical - two forms: common case and genitive case. 2. Limited case system
(H. Sweet, O .Jespersen, AX Smirnitsky. - genitive -non-genitive. There are several problems connected
~with the genitive case: a) The possibility of forming the genitive case is limited: 1. living beings (The Van
der Merwes' farm), 2. nouns denoting units of time (an hour and a half ‘s walk away); b. " -s" is no
longer a case inflexion of noun, it may be attached to: 1. the adverb (He went over tomorrow's
appointments. 2. the word-group (Mary and John's apartment ), 3, the whole clause (The man I saw
yesterday's son), 4. the pronoun (one’s character
Four case system:Theory of positional cases .- Nominative case -Margo rose. The Vocative case - Frank,
what are you doing, the Dative case –Give the people any help, The accusative case- Swann paid the bill.Theory
of prepositional cases .-the Nominative case, the Accusative case, the Dative case - to + Noun, for + Noun,
The Genitive case - of + Noun. No case system (Vorontsova G.N.): The theory of possessive postposition. somebody else's daughter. The postpositional element ‘s’ is but loosely connected with the noun,
preposition ‘of’ is not a morpheme, there is a parallelism of functions between die possessive
postpositional constructions and the prepositional constructions, resulting in the optional use of the former somebody else's daughter -the daughter of somebody else.
Рекомендуемая литература
1. Блох М.М. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка.-М. 1983
2. Иофик Л.Л. Чахоян Л.П. Поспелова А.Г. Хрестоматия по теоретической грамматике
английского языка
-Л.1981.
3. Кошевая И.Г. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка. –М. 1982
4. Вейхман Г.А. Новое в английской грамматике. –М. 2001
5. Мороховская Э.Я. Основы теоретической грамматики английского языка. –Киев. 1981.
6. Мороховская Э.Я. Практикум по теоретической грамматике. –Л. 1973
Lecture 21. Syntactical combinations and formations.The Sentence. Principles of
classification of sentences.
1. Word combinations.
2. Different types of word combinations and principles of the classification.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE PHRASE ACCORDING to the structure .Phrases maybe subdivided into two big
groups: "elementary" and "compound".Elementary phrases are phrases constitute by one syntactic bond.
Elementary are
subdivided into simple and "complex". Simple are phrases with only one adjunct,
e.g.: uThe outer enemy could, and did, parody it in a hundred ways.", where the word "enemy" is the
head-word of only by one adjunct "outer". The type of coordination is the types of complex phrases it's
necessary to learn what "adjunct means. The adjunct means words or
phrase added to explain, describe or define another word.
Complex phrases are subdivided into three types:Phrases with an expanded head should contain not less
than two adjuncts to the headword, e.g.: " Better a good long sleep an' keep the table spread till Ah waken. .
The phrase a good long sleep" consists of the headword "sleep" and two adjuncts "good and long". NB: The
head is not considered to be expanded, if it has only one adjunct, it should have two or more.
Phrases with an expanded adjunct should contain at least one adjunct to an adjunct of the headword,
e.g.: The water dribbled from". tightly closed lips. In the phrase " tightly closed lips" the headword
"lips" has ONE adjunct " , closed; the adjunct "closed* is modified by its own adjunct "tightly" (closed
how? - tightly). The adjunct may have only one word, which it is modified by (another adjunct) to be called
expanded.
Phrases with аn expanded head and adjunct should contain at least two adjuncts (o the head-word and
one or more adjuncts, which become the head-words to their own adjuncts, e.g.: On a December evening
just three weeks before Christmas, after an easily mild day that had died jn a darkening flush of violet
twilight . Christy came down ...to look for his long-lost pal, Tommy Flynn . The phrase "a darkening flush
of violet twilight", consists of the head-word "flush*' which has two adjuncts "darkening, twilight that is why
it may be called "a phrase with an expanded head. The adjunct twilight1 has its own adjunct "violet" that's
why the whole phrase is called a phrase with expanded head and adjunct.
Compound are phrases constitute of two or more syntactic bonds:
Coordination and predication, e.g.: This of course caused ears to pick up and ribald comments
to form on various lips. . This sentence contains two predicative constructions - "ears to pick up ", "ribald
comments to form on vqrious lips" - Objective-with-the-Infinitive constructions. They are connected with
the help of the conjunction "and", which indicates the syntactic bond - coordination.
Coordination and subordination e.g.: Three old ladies and one fierce-looking old gentleman
raised their heads and gazed at the intruder with deadly venom.. Where the heads "ladies and gentleman
are connected coordinately, "three old ladies' and "one fierce-looking old gentleman" are connected
subordinately.
Predication and subordination, e.g.: The dog sniffed at it, his intelligent eyes fixed on the man's
face. Where "eyes fixed1' is an absolute nominal participial construction, which means that two
elements of this construction are connected predicatively, syntactic bond - predication, "his intelligent
eyes" and "on the man's face" - subordination. The word "eyes" is the headword, and the words "his,
intelligent" are the adjuncts to the headword! In the phrase "on the man's face"" , the headword is "face".
CLASSIFICATION
OF
THE
PHRASE
ACCORDING
TO
THE
HEAD
COMPONENT.According to the head component all phrases maybe subdivided into headed and "nonheaded". Headed are phrases containing a headword. Non-headed are phrases, the elements of which are
either equal (coordination, cumulation), or stand in a predicative relation to each other (predication).
Headed subordinate phrases are subdivided into regressive and, progressive types.
Regressive are phrases the headword of which follows the adjuncts.
1.An adverb phrase, the headword is expressed by an adverb, F.e. Art looked wonderingly at the face
so urgently near his.
2. An adjective phrase, the headword is expressed by an adjective, e.g. Pekinese a terribly sensitivejust as sensitive as children.
3.A noun phrase, the headword is expressed by a noun-She suddenly let the conversation end, simply
giving him another long, searching enigmatic smile.
Progressive are phrases the headword of which stands before the adjuncts. There are four types of
headed subordinate progressive phrases:A noun phrase, the head-word is expressed by a noun. e.g. The slant of
the roof, veering toward him so abruptly, must have given an impression of closing in.An adjective phrase,
the headword is expressed by an adjective, e.g She was cool enough, and when I said something to her
.A preposition phrase, the headword is expressed by a preposition . A verb phrase, the headword is
expressed by a verb (or verbal), e.g. Then, indeed, I hardly knew whether I had anything to offer with
sincerity .
Non-headed phrases are subdivided into:
1.
Non-headed predicative phrases:
• Scholars have different opinions on the notion Primary predication: some of them consider it to
be a phrase, others consider it to be a sentence consisting of a subject and predicate. We share the latter
opinion, e.g.: So we took him out bye.
• Secondary predication is a phrase expressed by any predicative construction,
2. Non-headed coordinative phrases are subdivided into syndetically and asyndetically connected
phrases, that is according to the presence (syndetical) or absence (asyndetical) of a conjunction between the
elements of the phrase:Syndetical,Asyndetical
3.Non-headed cumulative phrases are subdivided into:1.One class phrases are those, which contain
adjuncts belonging to the same part of speech. 2.Multi class phrases are those which contain adjuncts
belonging to different parts of speech.
Рекомендуемая литература
1. Блох М.М. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка.-М. 1983
2. Иофик Л.Л. Чахоян Л.П. Поспелова А.Г. Хрестоматия по теоретической грамматике
английского языка
-Л.1981.
3. Кошевая И.Г. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка. –М. 1982
4. Вейхман Г.А. Новое в английской грамматике. –М. 2001
5. Мороховская Э.Я. Основы теоретической грамматики английского языка. –Киев. 1981.
6. Мороховская Э.Я. Практикум по теоретической грамматике. –Л. 1973
Lecture 22. The Sentence. Principles of classification of sentences.
Simple and complex sentences.sentences.
1. Sentence. General characteristics.
2. Classification of the sentence according to the purpose of the utterance.
3. Classification of the sentences according to the structure.
4. Compound sentence. Types of coordination. Complex sentence.
Тезисы лекции:
There are more than 100 definitions of the sentence. Some of them are the following: 1. The sentence is the
immediate integral unit of speech built up of words according to a definite syntactic-pattern and
distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose. 2. The sentence is a communication unit
made up of words (and word-morphemes) in conformity with their combinability and structurally united by
intonation and predicatively.
Main problems - There is a considerable divergence of opinion among grammarians concerning the
analysis of "one-member" and "imperative" sentences. Some scholars do not treat them as sentences, others do
treat them as sentences, as unlike the word such sentences do not exist in the system of language as a readymade unit, they are created by speakers in the course of communication, they are intonationally delimited and
are characterized by predication. This discrepancy brings to the necessity to distinguish a sentence, which is
always structurally correct, and an utterance, which is not always structurally correct but is still u
communicative unit of speech, as its meaning is complete. It happens when language enters into speech, that
is when a sentence is used in speech (when it is pronounced) then it becomes an utterance.
1. Sentence is a unit of speech, 2. Sentence is intonationally delimited, 3. Sentence is a predicative
unit
Predication - is the expression of the relation of the utterance (sentence) to reality
1. The center of predication in a sentence of verbal type is a finite verb. The finite verb expresses
essential predicative meanings by its categorical forms: tense and mood. For example in the sentence –
“I hope” I - indicates the person, "hope"- the tense and mood components of predicativity. In the sentence "Invite me...", there is a one-word predication - invite- containing the mood component of predicatively. The
person component is only implied,
2. V.V.Vinogradov insists that predication is effected by:
• Intonation: Thus, one-member sentences of nominal type like: "Night”', are also predicative
units. They are pronounced with proper intonation, they contain the relations to the act of speech, the speaker
and reality, as the noun -night- is associated with the third person. When there are no positive indicators of
any tense or mood the sentence is understood to contain the least specific of those meaning - indicative
mood and the present tense.
• Word order: So uneasy was he that when the next postcard came it came as a relief.
• Different functional words: “just, even”- No, Quite simple, I was just skating .
• Purposes of communication (declaration, interrogation, inducement).
• Modal probability, e.g.: "perhaps, probably, may be, by all means” .
Different principles of classification are based on three main aspects of the sentence:
• The semantic aspect (meaning) - the classification according to the semantic (Actual division).
• The pragmatic aspect (function) - the classification according to the purpose of the utterance.
• The structural aspect (form) - the classification according to the structure.
According to the purpose of the utterance there are four types: declarative, interrogative, imperative,
exclamatory.
According to the structure: simple and composite.
Lecture 26.
Тезисы лекции:
The simple sentence , as any sentence in general, is organized a system of function-expressing
positions, the content of the functions reflects a situational event. According to the structure simple
sentences are divided into one member and two member sentences. It depends on the using of the main
parts of the sentence. A two member sentence has both of them. A one member sentence has only one of
them, which is neither the subject nor the predicate.
One member sentences are those ,which have no separate subject and predicate but one part only instead.
Such sentences are frequent.
Imperative sentence with no subject of the action mentioned are also to be classed among one
member sentences.
The infinitive sentence is also a one member sentence 1.Exclamatory, where the infinitive stands at
the beginning with the particle to.
2. Interrogative sentences beginning with the adverb why
followed by an infinitive without the particle to and sometimes preceded by the particle not.
Elliptical sentences is also a one member sentence with one or more of their parts left out, which can
be inferred from the context. The main sphere of elliptical sentences is dialogue.
The main parts of the sentence.Subject and predicate are the main parts of the sentence. The subject is
the principal part of the sentence, which is grammatically independent of the other parts of the sentence ,
on which the second principal part is dependent, in most cases with the subject in number and person.
When the pronoun it is used as the subject of a sentence it may represent a living being or a thing ,then it
is a notional subject. If it does not represent any living being or thing, the it is a formal subject.
The predicate is the second principal part of the sentence, which expresses an action, state, or quality
of the person or thing denoted by the subject.
According to the structure it may be simple and compound. The simple predicate is expressed by a
finite verb in a simple or a compound tense form.
The compound predicate consists of two parts a finite verb and some other part of speech. The
compound predicate may be nominal or verbal.
The compound nominal predicate consists of link verb and predicative.
The compound verbal predicate is divided into to types according to the meaning of the finite verb: the
compound verbal modal predicate and the compound verbal aspect predicate.
The secondary parts of the sentence. The object denotes a thing to which the action passes on, which is
the result of the action, or denotes an action as object of another action. There are two terms: direct object
and indirect object. The attribute qualifies a noun, a pronoun, or any other part of speech that has a
nominal character and can be either in pre-position or post position to the word it modifies. The adverbial
modifier modifies a part of the sentence expressed by a verb, a verbal noun, an adjective or an adverb and
serves to characterize an action or a property as to its quality or intensity. And it serves to indicate the
way the action is done, the time, place manner ,cause, result, condition, purpose, with which the action or
the manifestation of the quality is connected.
There are two types of composite sentence in ME: compound and complex sentences. A compound
sentence consists of two or more clauses coordinated with each other. A clause is a part of a sentence,
which has a subject and a predicate of its own. According to the methods of clauses , composite sentences
are divided into syndetic and asyndetic. There are four types of coordination:
1. Copulative coordination.
2. Disjunctive coordination
3. Adversative coordination
4. Causative- consecutive coordination.
The Complex sentence. Subordination. In subordination the relation is not equal, one sentence depends
on the other. Dependent clauses are joined to the principal clause either by means of conjunctions, or by
means of pronoun and adverbs. Subordinate clauses complete the sense or take the place the parts of
principal clause. Accordingly they may be classified as subject, predicative, object, attributive( attributive
appositive and attributive relative), adverbial clauses (of place, time, cause, condition, manner).
Рекомендуемая литература
1. Блох М.М. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка.-М. 1983
2. Иофик Л.Л. Чахоян Л.П. Поспелова А.Г. Хрестоматия по теоретической грамматике
английского языка
-Л.1981.
3. Кошевая И.Г. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка. –М. 1982
4. Вейхман Г.А. Новое в английской грамматике. –М. 2001
5. Мороховская Э.Я. Основы теоретической грамматики английского языка. –Киев. 1981.
6. Мороховская Э.Я. Практикум по теоретической грамматике. –Л. 1973
Lecture 23. The Syntax of the Text.
The Sentence. Principles of classification of sentences.
The Text. It is a structural and semantic unit used in language communication. The text has a
minimal borderline – it always contains no less than two components- complete sentences, simple or
composite , as a text always presupposes the existence of certain cohesion between the components utterances. Besides complete utterances the text may also contain special connections, mainly
conjunctions, which help to organize utterances into a text. A very important role in the text is played by
parenthesis. Parenthetical matter may be expressed by; a word , a phrase, a clause.
There are two principal types of texts: the monologue and the dialogue.
Text connective means. The main means is the order of the elements.
In a monologue each succeeding utterance within the paragraph is supposed to be a continuation , a
development of ideas expressed in the previous part of the text.
In a dialogue the words of the preceding speaker are understood as a cue to which the words of the next
speaker are kind of response or answer. Another means of connection are : conjunctions, articles,
pronouns which are used as anaphoric connectors.
Text expressive means. Different syntactical means can be used for making the sentence and the text
more emphatic. The main one is inverted word order. Its communicative aim is to lay particular stress on
the idea expressed by a component of the syntactic structure:1. to draw the attention of the reader or
listener 2. to emphasize the circumstances of the action.
Punctuation. In the written text punctuation marks have the following functions.
1. The comma is to separate:
-words and phrases in a series
-clauses of a compound sentence
-subordinate adverbial clause from its principal etc.
2.The semicolon separates
-two coordinate in a sentence not joined by a conjunction
-two clauses when they have commas within clause.
3. The colon is used after an introduction to a long quotation, a list or an enumeration
4. The hyphen is used between:
-two or more words serving as a single adjective or attribute before a noun
- the components of a compound cardinal numeral
5. The dash is used :
- to indicate an abrupt change of thought
-to set off lengthy appositive expressions containing commas
6. The quotation mark is used to enclose:
-direct quotations
-phrases when the writer desires to call attention to them
-the titles of books, articles, etc.within the text.
7. Thefull stop is placed at the end of the declarative sentence.
The majority of punctuation marks depend on the will of the writer.
Punctuation is not in itself part of the grammatical structure, but it has its grammatical significance , it is
connected with its phonetic layer, namely intonation.
Рекомендуемая литература
2. Блох М.Я. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка. М., Высшая школа, 2000.
1. Блох М.М. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка.-М. 1983
2. Иофик Л.Л. Чахоян Л.П. Поспелова А.Г. Хрестоматия по теоретической грамматике
английского языка
-Л.1981.
3. Кошевая И.Г. Теоретическая грамматика английского языка. –М. 1982
4. Вейхман Г.А. Новое в английской грамматике. –М. 2001
5. Мороховская Э.Я. Основы теоретической грамматики английского языка. –Киев. 1981.
6. Мороховская Э.Я. Практикум по теоретической грамматике. –Л. 1973
3 ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЕ ЗАНЯТИЯ
Структура практического занятия:
Практическое занятие 1. The Subject matter of the history of the language. The Word stock of the
English Language and its development.
Содержание практического занятия:
1. The object of the history of the English language and its aim and significance.
2. The Old English period.The Middle English period, Modern English period.
3. The Old English Word stock and its specific features: Indo-European, Common Germanic and
Native words.
4. The Middle English word stock and its characteristic features.
Цель занятия:
Описание исторических преобразований изучаемого языка как непрерывного процесса изменений
языковой системы под влиянием как внутриязыковых и внеязыковых факторов.
Контрольные вопросы:
Методические рекомендации:
Исходя из практических целей в методических рекомендациях, предлагается такая
трактовка грамматических явлений, которая представляется наиболее приемлемой для достижения
целей. Поэтому при изложении и обобщении закономерностей грамматического строя
английского языка наряду кратким изложением правил в методических рекомендациях речевые
образцы и таблицы, схемы, которые даны на страницах 18-75 «Учебно-методических материалов»
по данной дисциплине.
4 КУРСОВАЯ РАБОТА
4.1 Примерная тематика курсовых работ
3.1.1 Глагольные фразеологизмы английского языка
3.1.2. Омонимия в английском языке.
3.1.3 Семантико-структурные особенности пословиц и поговорок в английском язык
3.1.4 Многочленные аттрибутивные словосочетания в английском языке и особенности
их перевода.
3.1.5 Категория рода в английском языке.
3.1.6 Внутренний синтаксис сложных слов.
3.1.7 Особенности структуры словосочетания в современном английском языке.
3.1.8 Особенности структуры сложного предложения в современном английском языке.
3.1.8 Соматическая лексика в английском языке.
3.1.9. Топонимика в идиомах английского языка.
3.1.10 Лексико-грамматическая характеристика газетных заголовков в английском языке.
3.1.11 Особенности терминологической лексики, используемой в системе образования в
Британии.
3.1.12 Интернациональные и псевдоинтернациональные слова в переводе.
3.1.13 Авторские неологизмы в английских художественных произведениях.
3.1.14 Видо-временные формы английских глаголов.
3.1.15 Неличные формы глагола.
3.1.16 Употребление модальных глаголов в английском языке.
3.1.17 Антонимы в английском языке.
3.1.28 Метафора в английском языке.
3.1.19 Идиомы английского языка.
3.1.20 Словообразовательные модели неологизмов в английском языке.
3.1.21 Вариантность слов и фразеологических единиц в английском языке.
3.1.22 Исконно английские слова в лексической системе.
3.1.23 Проблемы перевода фразовых глаголов.
3.1.24 Слова термины в лексике.
3.1.25 Фразеологические синонимы в английском языке.
3.1.26 Архаизмы и их место в лексической системе.
3.1.27 Глагольные системы в английском и русском языках.
3.1.28 Способы перевода фразеологических единиц с английского на русский язык.
3.1.29 Заимствованная банковская терминология в английском языке.
3.1.30 Глагольные фразеологические единицы в английском и казахском (русском)
языках.
3.1.31 Слова-реалии в лексической системе английского языка.
3.1.32 Структурно- семантическая природа фразеологических единиц с компонентами
зоонимами в английском и казахском (русском) языках.
3.1.33 Англо-русские (казахские) параллели фразеологизмов.
3.1.34 Языковая природа эпитета в английском и казахском (русском) языках.
3.1.35 Фразеологические единицы с соматическими компонентами в английском и
русском (казахском) языках.
3.1.36 Заимствованные слова в лексической системе английского языка.
3.1.37 Фразеологическая активность имен существительных в английском и казахском
(русском) языках.
3.1.38 Сопоставительный анализ фразеологических единиц с названиями частей тела.
3.1.39 Национально-культурная специфика пословиц и поговорок в английском и
казахском (русском) языках.
3.1.40 Структурные особенности сложных предложений в английском языке.
3.1.41 Метафорическая природа фразеологизмов в лингвистике (на материале
английского, русского, казахского языков).
3.1.42 Фразеологизмы с компонентами числительными в английском и казахском
(русском) языках.
3.1.43 Конверсия как один из продуктивных способов словообразования в английском
языке
3.1.44 Национальные и культурные особенности пословиц и поговорок в английском и
казахском языках.
3.1.45 Глагольные фразеологические единицы в английском и русском языках.
3.1.46 Конверсия как один из продуктивных способов словообразования в английском
языке.
3.1.47 Полисемия в английском языке.
3.1.48 Структурно-семантические особенности фразеологических антонимов в
английском и казахском языках.
3.1.49 Заимствованные слова в лексической системе английского языка.
3.1.50 Фразеологические единицы с компонентами прилагательными.
3.1.51 Слова-реалии в составе фразеологизмов английского языка.
3.1.52 Структурно-семантическая природа фразеологических единиц с компонентами
зоонимами в английском и казахском языках.
3.1.53 Англо-русские (казахские) параллели фразеологизмов.
3.1.54 Языковая природа эпитета в английском и казахском языках.
3.1.55 Фразеологическая активность имен существительных в английском и казахском
языках.
3.1.56 Сопоставительный анализ фразеологических единиц с названиями частей тела.
3.1.57 Структурные особенности сложных предложений в английском языке.
3.1.58 Метафорическая природа фразеологизмов в лингвистике (на материале
английского, казахского, русского языков).
3.1.59 Фразеологизмы с компонентами числительными в английском и казахском
(русском) языках.
3.1.60 Фразеологические единицы с соматическими компонентами в английском и
казахском (русском) языках.
3.1.61 Артикуляционный и акустический аспекты звуков речи английского и родного
языка.
3.1.62 Особенности артикуляционной базы английского и родного языка.
3.1.63 Основные особенности фонетической структуры английского и родного языка.
3.1.64 Фонологичекий аспект звуков речи английского языка.
3.1.65 Основные особенности слоговой структуры английского и родного языка.
3.1.66 Ударение как основной элемент фонетической структуры языка.
3.1.67 Безударный вокализм англиского языка.
3.1.68 Особенности интонационной структуры английского языка.
3.2 Методические указания по выполнению курсовой работы
Профессиональная подготовка специалистов-переводчиков в вузе предусматривает наряду с
усвоением теоретических курсов и практическим овладением языком приобщение студентов к
научно-исследовательской работе в области одной из профилирующих дисциплин.
Курсовая работа должна представить собой самостоятельное исследование одной из проблем
изучаемых профилирующих дисциплин. Написание курсовых работ должно способствовать
углублению и систематизации знаний студентов по теоретическим дисциплинам, развитию
научного мышления и приобретению умений в области научного исследования, овладению
умением творчески использовать теоретические знания для решения практических задач.
Основные задачи курсовой работы заключается, с одной стороны. в формировании умения
работать с научной литературой: делать обзор литературы по проблеме исследования,
сопоставлять и анализировать различные точки зрения, выводы и обобщение, с другой стороны, в выработке навыков самостоятельной работы поискового характера, в повышении своего
профессионального уровня в условиях непрерывного образования и самообразования.
Указанные выше цели предусматривает выполнение следующих задач, стоящих перед
студентов при выполнении курсовой работы:
а) выбор темы курсовой работы;
б) ознакомление с научной литературой по выбранной теме;
в) анализ и систематизация научных знаний, полученных в ходе ознакомление с литературой по
теме исследования;
г) попытка практического применения приобретенных научных знаний.
Этапы и методика подготовки курсовой работы
а) выбор темы исследования;
б) планирование работы над темой исследования;
в) определение методов проведения исследования;
г) изучениие литературы по теме исследования;
д) проведение исследования в целях углубленного изучения избранного студентов теоретического
курса;
е) обощение результатов исследования;
ж) практическое применение полученных теоретических знаний.
Планирование работы над темой исследования
Выбрав темы курсовой работы, руководитель и студент составляет план работы по ее
написанию. Примерными пунктами такого плана могут быть, распределенные во времени этапы
работы над курсрвым проектом: отбор, критический анализ, систематизация и обощение научных
материлов по теме проекта, составление плана курсовой работы, собственно написание работы по
утвержденному плану,: попытка практического
применения теоретически обработанного
материала.
Определение методов проведения исследования
Хотя курсовая работа, в отличие от дипломной работы, не расчитана на получение значимого
научного результата, тем не менее, она ориентирована на привитие навыков ппроведение научного
исследования и предусматривает использование элементов некоторых основных методов научного
исследования, как, например:
- метод изучения научной литературы по теме исследования;
- метод наблюдения и анализа;
- анкетирование;
- эксперимент;
- тестирование;
- статитический метод и др.
Изучение литературы по теме исследования
Изучение научной литературы по избранной теме является отправным и основополагающим
этапом написания работы. При этом студент развивает навыки просмотрового и аналитического
чтения. Особое внимание при этом важно уделить отбору основных источников, на базе которых
будет написана курсовая работа с тем, чтобы как можно полнее отразить наиболее существенные
аспекты исследуемой проблемы. Написание отвечающей соответствующим требованиям курсовой
работы предполагает детальное ознакомление с 10-15 наиболее значимыми для раскрытия темы
библиографическими источниками.
Над литературными источниками рекомендутся работать примерно в следующем порядке:
1. Просмотреть работу, чтобы получить общее представление о ее построении и о том,
какие вопросы в ней
освещается.
2. Внимательно прочитать работу и выписать то, что относится к избранной теме.
Основные приемы записи:
составление плана, составление тезисов, конспекты, аннотации. Рекомендуется
записывать мысли,
возникшие в процессе чтения.
Удобно вести записи не в тетради, а на отдельных карточках. Это – цлесообразный прием,
облегчающий нахождение записи в нужный момент. На карточке, записывается цитаты, аннотация
и т д., записываются фамилия автора, название, год, место выхода работы, страницы,
библиографический шифр. Ве это пригодится студенту при написании работы и при повторном
обращении к источнику.
Проведение научного исследования
Применительно к курсовой работе, проведение научного исследования предполагает главным
образом критический анализ, обобщение и систематизацию почерпнутого из основных
библиографичеких источников материала, умение проводить самостоятельные наблюдения и
обобщать их.
Требование к структуре и содержанию курсовой работы
Курсовая работа должна примерно состоять из:
1. Плана работы, с указанием номеров страниц.
2. Введения, в котором обосновывается выбор темы работы, ее
актуальность, приводятся цели и задачи работы, упоминаются
использованные при ее написании методы.
3. Основной части, в которой описываются теоретические предпосылки
исследования, дается краткий обзор научной литературы по вопросу,
определяются употребляемые в работе термины, приводятся данные о
состонии изучаемой проблемы на сегодняшний день, приводится
критический анализ имеющихся на изучаемую пролемуточек зрения,
обосновывается собственное отношение автора к этим точкам зрения.
4. Практичекой части, в клторой делается попытка применения
полученных знаний непосредственно на практике. Практичекая часть
должна иллюстрировать изложенные иеоретические положения на
материале конкретных разработок.
5. Заключения, в котором обощается приводимые в работе материалы, и
делаются соответствующие выводы, куазывается теоретическая и
практичекая
значимость
работы.
Выводы
должны
быть
сформулированы коротко и четко, и вытекать из сказанного в
предыдущих частях работы.
6. Списка использованной литературы. В нем указываются источники,
которые были использованы студентом по данному вопросу. Список
литературы составляется в алфавитном порядке (по фамилии автора)
7. И, возможно, Приложения, в котором, как правило, приводятся
данные по практическому использованию приводимого в работе
теоретического матерала, графический или иной иллюстративный
материал.
Требование к оформлению и объему курсовой работы
Курсовая работа выполняется на родном или иностранном языке. Она должна быть написана
на отдельных стандартных листах бумаги, заполненных с одной стороны. Поля слева составляют
3-4 см, справа 1-2 см. Примерный объем работы 25-30 страниц от руки четким, разорчивым
почеком, или 15 страниц машинописи. Работа помещается в обложку (переплет, папку и.т.) и
имеет титульный лист, стандартного образца. План, помещаемый в начеле работы после
титульного листа, должен содержать полное название разделов с указанием страниц. Список
использованной литературы оформляется в соответствии с приятными нормами. Содержание
работы не следует излогать сплошным текстом. В нем необходимо выделять разделы, главы,
параграфы, отражающие логическую последовательность, изложения материла.
Защита курсовой работы
Для защиты курсовой работыы студенту предоставляется 10 минут нв выступление, в
котором дролжны быть отражены актуальность, цель и задачи, ключевые, содержательные
моменты защищаемой работы, основные выводы по ней. После выступления студент отвечает на
вопросы комиссии и слушателей, которые возникли при ппрослушивании выступления. Научный
руководитель пишет рецензию на курсовую работу. Формой контроля является
дифференцированнй зачет.
Критерии оценки курсовой работы
Уровень исполнения той или иной курсовой работы оценивается с точки зрения следующих
параметров:
- актуальность темы курсовой работы;
- умение студента вычленить и обоснвать проблему;
- умение кооектно сформулировать цель и задачи работы;
- умение выбрать соответствующие методы для решения поставленных задач;
- способность критически оценивать имеющуюся по данной проблеме научную работу;
- умение логически поседовательно изложить содержание работы;
- способность сделать аргументировааные выводы;
- владение научным стилем речи, полнота освещения и доказательность, простота
илаконичность;
- оформление работы в соответствии с предъвляемыми требованиями.
4
САМОСТОЯТЕЛЬНАЯ РАБОТА СТУДЕНТА
4.1 Методические рекомендации по организации самостоятельной работы студента
В современных условиях самостоятельная учебная деятельность обучающегося становится
главной, а деятельность преподавателя - содействующей, способствующей эффективному
обучению. Цель самостоятельной работы обучающегося – организация систематического
изучения дисциплины в течение семестра, закрепление и углубление полученных знаний и
навыков, подготовка к предстоящим занятиям, а также формирование культуры умственного
труда и самостоятельности в поиске и приобретении новых знаний.
Материалы лекций и практических занятий должны послужить основой для СРС над
теоретической проблематикой, В рамках данного курса рекомендуются следующие виды СРС:
Комментированный конспект – это конспект первоисточника и комментарии к нему, которые
могут быть отдельными частями целостной работы, либо «встроенными».
Алгоритм выполнения задания:
1. Прочитать предложенные преподавателем высказывания лингвистов по теоретической
проблеме и найти
дополнительно высказывания отечественных и зарубежных ученых по рассматриваемой
проблеме;
2. Освоить содержание темы, ее ключевые проблемы;
3. Из предложенных и найденных высказываний извлечь принципиально важные фрагменты, т.е.
«свернуть»
текст, цитируя ключевые идеи, ссылаясь на определенные страницы;
4. Составить комментарии к положениям, изложенных в анализируемых текстах: комментарии
могут быть как
от лица студента, так и от имени автора, исследовавшего данную проблему;
5. Проиллюстрировать рассматриваемые положения конкретными примерами.
Компаративный (сравнительный) анализ – предполагает выделение возможных параллелей или
аналогов в тех или иных фонетических, лексических или грамматических явлениях, обнаружение
единства и различия научных подходов и т.д. Результаты представить в виде структурнологической схемы, таблицы.
Алгоритм выполнения задания:
1. Найти и изучить материал по предложенной теме;
2. Выявить сходство и различие рассматриваемых единиц явлений, подходов;
3. Систематизировать материал в виде сравнительной таблицы;
4. Привести примеры, подготовить устный комментарий к составленной схеме (таблице).
Метод проекта – предполагает совокупность исследовательских, поисковых, проблемных
методов, творческих по своей сути.
Алгоритм выполнения задания:
1. Поиск и сбор материала для решения проблемы и ее раскрытия;
2. Предложить возможные решения проблемы на основе анализа точек зрения ученых,
выработать, в пользу предложенного, решения вопроса;
3. Найти иллюстративный материал, составить план, презентации, приготовить наглядные
пособия (схемы, таблицы, диаграммы и.т.п.);
4. Презентация и защита проекта, предполагающая коллективное обсуждение.
Метод научной дискуссии – одна из активных форм учебного процесса, незаменимая при
освоении теоретических проблем .Преподавателю необходимо в составе изучаемой темы
обнаружить те вопросы, по которым обучающиеся осознанно придерживаются разных точек
зрения. Это может быть сделано в ходе лекций и других занятий. В ходе дискуссии, ведущий ее
преподаватель обучает не какой –либо позиции, а умению излагать и аргументировать любую
позицию, избранную тем или иным участником. Он должен помочь спорщикам проявить свои
сильные стороны, найти новые удачные аргументы.
Алгоритм выполнения задания:
Возможны следующие варианты организации дискуссии:
1. Участники, сгруппировавшись по взглядам, изучают материал по выдвинутой на обсуждение
проблеме,
находят конкретные примеры, иллюстрирующие их позицию, заранее готовят тезисы и
«публикуют» их, т.е.
распространяют среди будущих участников дискуссии.
2. Предворительная подготовка идет разрозненно, индивидуально, участники логически и активно
группируются в «партии» в ходе дикуссии. В этом случае дикуссия начинается с заявления
позиций, а уже
потом идет полемика.
3. В случае если участники не склонны активно группироваться и заявлять позиции, есть смысл
разделить группу на подгруппы и предложить им поговорить между собой. После разговора по
малым группам каждая из них докладывет либо общую позицию, либо основные выявившиеся
позиции.
Процедура научной дискуссии заключается в последовательных и свободных выступлениях
каждого из участников. а затем и слушателей, с целью обоснования собственной позиции и
нахождения компромиссного решения обсуждаемой проблемы.
Анализ текстового фрагмента – предполагает умение студента идентифицировать и
интерпретировать соответствующие языковые явления и факты в их реальном бытовании, т.е. в
тексте.
Алгоритм выполнения задания:
1. Указать категории основных классов слов и типы. Отметить случаи лексикализации форм, влияния лексического
значения на реализацию грамматических категории;
2. Анализ единиц текста и их организация по следующим параметрам: тематическое единство,
средство межфразовой связи (лексические, семантические, сиснаксические).
Реконструкция текста – выполняется по одному из источников списка литературы.
Алгоритм выполнения задания:
1. Найти и изучить материал по предложенной теме(проблеме), используя монографии, учебники учебные
пособия, периодики, Интернет, энциклопедические словари и т д.
2. Отметить системные параметры и основные выводы освоенного текста;
3. Рекламировать текст в максимально краткое резюме, структурно-логические схемы, таблицы.
информационно-смысловые блоки, диаграммы.
Глоссарий – понятийно-терминологический словарь.
Алгоритм выполнения задания:
1. Составить перечень основных фонетических, лексических и грамматических понятий по теме;
2. Используя справочники, лингвистические энциклопедии, в комплексе небольших статей под
единым
названием дать определение того или иного понятия.
3. Привести примеры.
Аналитическая справка - развернутый письменный анализ поставленной проблемы.
Алгоритм выполнения задания:
1. Используя справочники, статистические и фактические данные, периодические издания,
предложенные
преподавателем издания, которые целесообразно использовать при анализе. осмыслить
теоретический
материал;
2. Обработка и анализ источников по теме, выработка собственных выводов;
3. Привести контретные примеры;
4. Составить аналитическую справку.
4.2 Перечень тем рефератов и контрольных заданий для текущего и входного контроля
знаний студентов
4.2.1 Работа с терминологией по курсу «История английского языка;
4.2.2 Выполнение реферат по темам: «Old English Phonetic system», «Middle English
phonetic system», «Old English grammatical system», «Middle English grammatical
system»;
4.2.3 Работа по составлению глоссария по пройденным темам;
4.2.4 Выполнение СРС № 1 Лексикологии английского языка по теме: «Семантические
изменения значения слова».
4.2.5 Выполнение СРС №2 по теме: «Лексико-семантические группы слов»;
4.2.6 Выполнение СРС №3 по теме: «Морфологическая структура слова»;
4.2.7 Выполнение лабораторной работы «Теоретической фонетике английского языка»по
теме: «The system of English consonants and vowels»;
4.2.8 Выполнение СРС «Теоретической фонетике английского языка»
по теме: «Modification of English phonemes in connected speech»;
4.2.9 Выполнение СРС по «Теоретической фонетике английского языка» по теме: «The
Syllabic structure of English words»;
4.2.10 Работа с терминологией по курсу «Theoretical grammar»;
4.2.11 Выполнение реферат по темам: «Grammar in the systemic conception of language»,
«Morphemic structure of the word», « Categorial structure of the word», «Grammatical
classes of words”;
4.2.12 Работа по составлению глоссария по пройденным темам;
4.2.13 Выполнение СРС № 1,2 Практические задания по темам:” Syntagmatic relations in
sentences and paradigmatic relations of words”,”The Noun”, The Verb,Verbids”,” The
Adjective”,”The Adverb”, The Numeral” and other parts of speech;
4.2.14 Выполнение по теме: «Syntagmatic connections of words»;
4.2.15 Выполнение СРС №4 Теоретическая грамматика
английского языка по теме: «Communicative Types of sentence»;
4.2.16 Выполнение СРС по теоретической грамматике “ Phrases,Sentence,Parts of the
sentence”. Practical tasks.