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GRAMMAR
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Remember the word SVOMPT. It will help you to construct English sentences:
S
V
O
M
Subj
ect
I
verb
object
saw
Robert
He
passed
the exam
manner
P
T
place
time
at school
on Monday.
easily.
Questions:
(W)
V
S
(V)
O
M
||
what – who – when – where – why – which – how
P
T
1. Yes/No questions:
Inversion: a. verb to be:
b. modal verbs:
c. have got:
Auxiliary: other verbs:
I am late. - Am I late? – Yes, you are. / No, you are not.
He can type. - Can he type? – Yes, he can. / No, he can’t.
I have got a computer. - Have you got a computer? – Yes, I have. / No, I haven’t.
They finished yesterday. – Did they finish yesterday?
– Yes, they did. / No, they didn’t.
2. Wh- questions (using what, who, when, where, why, which, how):
No auxiliary – when asking about the subject:
Who made the cake? – Rosie made it.
Auxiliary – when asking about the object, manner, place or time:
Who did you meet? – I met Paul.
Where does he work?
Preposition at the end of the sentence:
Who do you live with? What are you looking at?
What’s the weather like?
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3. Alternative questions (choice):
Would you like tea or coffee? – Tea, please.
4. Indirect questions:
Who are those people?
What does she want?
Can he help us?
Do you know who those people are? (no inversion: S - V)
I don’t know what she wants. (no auxiliary)
I don’t know if/whether he can help us. (yes/no questions)
Exercises:
1. Arrange these words in the right order.
a. in the lab / you shouldn’t work / at night ………..…………………………………….
b. this chapter / you should study / more carefully ……………………………………….
c. the project / when / finish / the students / did / ? ………………………………………
d. saw / the experiment / who / ? ………………………………………………………….
e. enjoyed / the lectures / have / the students …………………………………………….
f. decomposes / acid / at once / carbonic ………………………………………………….
g. electricity / water power / can / make / cheap …………………………………………..
h. smoke / students / in the lab / may / ? …………………………………………………..
2. Arrange these words in the right order.
a. your article / I / in / quickly / last night / bed / read
……………………………………..................................................................................
b. till / afternoon / worked / 4 o’clock / the students / this
……………………………………………………………………………………..…….
c. gases / to / dioxide / allow / carbon / sun’s / and / enter / rays / other / the
………………………………………………………………………………………......
d. climate / models / warming / indicate / computer / of / changes / consequences / of / some /
Earth / a
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
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e. oxide / released / in / coal / nitrous / of / burning / is / the
…………………………………………………………………………………………...
f. destroy / can / micro-organisms / cooking / the / only / completely
…………………………………………………………………………………………...
3. Make questions to ask about the underlined statements using who, what or where.
a. I met Dr Seusse last night. ……………………………………………………………..
b. The scientist has found a new chemical element. ………………………………………
c. David took the pictures. …………………………………………..……………………
d. This process occurs naturally under certain conditions. ……………………………….
e. The researchers published their new findings…………………………………………..
f. We will have to redistill the compound………..……………………………………….
g. The condensate flows down the column………………………………………………...
h. Distillation consists in vaporizing a substance………………………………………….
4. Read the text, and then write questions for the answers.
The educational programme is divided into Academic Years, each year being divided into two
semesters, with the main vacation in July and August. The undergraduate studies take three years
for the Bachelor Degree and five for the Master Degree. In addition to these, the Institute provides
also postgraduate courses for PhD students.
All studies proceed on the basis of a curriculum of studies. At the end of each semester every
student must obtain a certain number of credits and pass several examinations.
Students may obtain certain scholarships. These may be granted either automatically for excellent
study results or on the basis of excellent research achievements, cultural or sports activities, and
also to aid in the cases of serious social problems.
Graduates of the Institute usually find employment in plants and research laboratories of chemical
and food industries as well as in various research institutes.
a. Academic Years ………………………………………………………………………...
b. in July and August ………………………………………………………………………
c. three years ………………………………………………………………………………
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d. postgraduate courses for PhD students …………………………………………………
e. every student ……………………………………………………………………………
f. excellent study results…………………………………………………………………...
g. chemical and food ………………………………………………………………………
For more practice see:
L.G.Alexander: Longman English Grammar Practice, Longman 1990, pp. 2-9
Raymond Murphy: English Grammar in Use, Cambridge 2004, Third edition, pp. 98-99, 102-103
Michael Swan & Catherine Walter: How English Works, Oxford 1997, pp. 210-211
SLOVESNÉ ČASY - VERB TENSES
1. Přítomný čas prostý - Present Simple
Jedná se o pravidelně se opakující děj v přítomnosti v základním významu. Tento slovesný čas je
nejčastěji používaným v odborné, např.chemické a jiné literatuře, protože popisované procesy a
stavy jsou prakticky většinou bez jakéhokoliv zřetele ke specifické době. Použití přítomného času
slovesa pak nemá nic společného jen s přítomnou dobou a přítomný čas zde má význam
nadčasový, což platí všeobecně. Přítomný čas prostý vyjadřuje obecnou platnost daného tvrzení.
Forma: - -s: he, she, it speaks he, she watches,
he studies;
- zápor je tvořen pomocným slovesem do not/don’t, does not/ doesn’t +
základním tvarem ( infinitivem ) významového slovem bez to:
I don’t work, she doesn’t study;
- otázka je tvořena pomocí pomocného slovesa do, does + základním tvarem
významového slovesa bez “to”




We need a good technical dictionary in order to understand the article.
Chemistry is a science which deals with substances.
In the lab we don’t use these dangerous chemicals.
He doesn’t study at our university.
- forma trpného rodu je tvořena tvary slovesa “be” a minulým příčestím
participle ) významového slovesa


(past
The laboratory is equipped with experimental technology.
Many scientific terms are unknown to non-scientists.
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2. Přítomný čas průběhový - Present Continuous
Tento čas se používá k popisu děje, který probíhá právě teď, v daném okamžiku. Tuto přítomnost
je ovšem třeba chápat šíře než jen jako bezprostřední, právě probíhající okamžik. Nejen
v odborném jazyce, ale i v běžném vyjadřování to bývá šíře pojímaná přítomná doba nebo trend.
Forma: tvary slovesa “be” (am, is, are) + tzv. -ing tvar významového slovesa.



At the moment Tom is analysing the substance.
Mary is studying at Cambridge this year.
Changes in the amount of ice floating in the polar oceans are causing sea levels to rise.
forma trpného rodu je tvořena tvary slovesa “be” + průběhovým tvarem being
+ minulým příčestím (past participle) významového slovesa


Polarographic methods are being used in the analysis of metals now.
The problem is being intensively studied these days.
Přítomného průběhového času se používá také k vyjádření tzv. blízké budoucnosti. Budoucnost
bývá vyjádřena příslovečným určením času, např. tomorrow, next week, atd., kdy se tak jedná o
vyjádření jistoty, že děj proběhne, či dějů a činností, které jsou připraveny a naplánovány.


According to the programme we are carrying out the experiment next Monday.
I am seeing the director tomorrow at 5 o’clock.
Průběhové tvary tvoří slovesa akce, činnosti (action verbs), např. sing, teach, study, talk, listen,
play, sit, write, speak, travel atd. Toto pravidlo platí také pro všechny další anglické časy – tj.
minulý, budoucí, předpřítomný, předminulý, předbudoucí.
Pozor! Non-action verbs průběhové časy netvoří!
Jedná se o slovesa myšlení (verbs of thinking), např. know, remember, recognize, notice,
understand, forget; cítění, pocitu (verbs of feeling), např. like, love, want, hate; slovesa
smyslového vnímání (verbs of senses) see, hear, smell, taste; některá další slovesa, např. include,
matter, cost, prefer, mean, fit, need.

The matter consists of small particles.
Pozor! Některá slovesa mají dva odlišné významy:
a) aktivní = tvoří také průběhovou formu, např. look at = dívat se na něco, taste sth. =
ochutnávat něco, feel a material = hmatat, zkoumat hmatem materiál, have ve frázích = dát
si něco, think of / about = přemýšlet o, myslet na někoho/něco.



She is having lunch at the moment.
Please be quiet! I’m thinking.
Why are you smelling the mixture?
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b) neaktivní = netvoří průběhovou formu: look = vypadat (he looks tired), taste = chutnat, feel
= cítit se, have = vlastnit, mít, think = myslet (být toho názoru)



This juice tastes good.
I think you’re right.
They have a new 3D printer.
3. Předpřítomný čas prostý – Present Perfect Simple
Tento čas vyjadřuje děj minulý, který se odehrával v neurčité, nespecifikované minulosti,
neoddělené od přítomnosti ostrou hranicí, který však souvisí s přítomností, a to buď svými
následky, nebo trváním. Zpravidla vyjadřuje následky minulého děje a do češtiny jej překládáme
minulým časem dokonavého slovesa (často můžeme doplnit „již“, „už“). Jestliže však perfektum
vyjadřuje děj, který začal v minulosti a ještě trvá v přítomnosti, odpovídá mu v českém překladu
většinou čas přítomný.
Nejčastějšími časovými určeními, která odkazují na neurčitou minulost a jsou spojována s
předpřítomným časem, jsou např: already, yet, not+yet, just, never, ever, always, often, once,
before, recently, lately, …(three, several) times, so far, a též spojeními s použitím for…(two
years), since.
Forma : tvary slovesa “have” – have/ has + minulé příčestí (past participle)
významového slovesa



The rain has already ruined the tomato crops.
We still haven’t discovered life on other planets.
I have known him since we met at university.
forma trpného rodu je tvořena tvary slovesa “have” – have/has + been + minulým
příčestím (past participle) významového slovesa



Many uses of this method have been described in the literature.
The polarographic method has been known for many years.
These views have aroused considerable interest.
4. Předpřítomný čas průběhový - Present Perfect Continuous
Tento čas vyjadřuje děj, který začal v minulosti a pokračuje v době, kdy se o něm zmiňujeme, či
chceme-li vyjádřit délku tohoto děje. Také pokud děj probíhal po nějakou dobu v nespecifikované,
nejčastěji blízké době minulé a má v přítomnosti určité důsledky. Do češtiny jej překládáme
přítomným časem.
Forma: tvary slovesa “have” – have/has + been + - ing tvar významového slovesa




I have been working in this institute since 2000.
He has been waiting for the results for an hour.
He can’t drive. He has been drinking.
The barometer has been rising since yesterday.
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Předpřítomný průběhový čas netvoří trpný rod, používá se trpný rod prostého předpřítomného
času.


The laboratory has been reconstructed since 2007.
These results have been published regularly in some periodicals.
5. Minulý čas prostý - Past Simple
Tento čas vyjadřuje děj, jenž v minulosti začal a v minulosti také skončil, a to bez jeho následků
zasahujících do přítomnosti. Minulý čas odkazuje na určitou identifikovatelnou dobu minulou
použitím časových určení typu – yesterday, last week, three hours ago, when I was young, the
other day, in the eighteenth century atd. Minulý děj může být zařazen do určité doby minulé také
vedlejší větou. Zcela odpovídá českému minulému času ve vidu dokonavém.
Forma: u sloves pravidelných používáme koncovku – ed: he worked, I cried, we travelled;
u sloves nepravidelných používáme samostatný tvar, určený pro minulý čas



Becquerel discovered radioactivity in 1896.
Long ago, people built houses of wood.
It started during those first months when I moved there, after he went abroad.
forma trpného rodu je tvořena tvary slovesa ‘‘be’’ - was/were a minulým příčestí
(past participle) významového slovesa


Oxygen was pumped into that container yesterday.
Prozac was discovered in 1972.
6. Minulý čas průběhový - Past Tense Continuous
Tento čas popisuje minulý děj, děj dočasného trvání, který probíhal v určitém minulém okamžiku
nebo v déletrvající době minulé. Také vyjadřuje děj minulý opakovaný. Velmi často tvoří rámec či
pozadí pro hlavní děj věty. Překládáme do češtiny nejčastěji minulým časem v formě vidu
nedokonavého slovesa.
I was working on my thesis (for) several months.
Pracoval(a) jsem na své diplomové (disertační) práci několik měsíců.
Forma: tvary slovesa ‘‘be’’ pro minulý čas - was/were + ing tvar významového slovesa



He was working on his thesis for several months last school term.
During the experiment he was using several beakers, test tubes and funnels.
Fleming was studying influenza when he discovered penicillin.
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forma trpného rodu je tvořena tvary slovesa ‘‘be’’ - was/ were + being + minulým
příčestím významového slovesa


That new element was being examined for a long time.
During the experiment both liquids were being slowly heated.
7. Předminulý čas prostý - Past Perfect Simple
Předminulý čas vyjadřuje a popisuje minulý děj, který skončil před jiným dějem minulým nebo
skončil či byl ukončen do určité doby v minulosti. Do češtiny tento děj překládáme časem
minulým, přičemž předčasnost, kterou tento čas vyjadřuje v angličtině, zůstává v čestině formálně
nevyjádřena.
Na určitou předminulou dobu lze odkazovat použitím časových určení v souvětí, jako např. when,
before, after, as, by the time, long, just, already, yet.
Předminulý čas je často používán ve strukturách nepřímé řeči a souslednosti časů.
Forma: používáme tvar slovesa “have’’ pro minulý čas – had + minulé příčestí
významového slovesa




After she had finished the experiment, she cleaned the entire laboratory.
By the time we got to the laboratory, the experiment had already started.
Everything was just as I had left it in the morning.
He showed me the latest issue of the periodical, which had just come out.
forma trpného rodu je tvořena tvarem had + been + minulým příčestím významového
slovesa

When reading the report he realized that some important information had been omitted.
8. Předminulý čas průběhový - Past Perfect Continuous
Předminulý přůběhový čas je používán pro vyjádření minulého děje předcházejícího před jiným
dějem minulým nebo před bližší dobou minulou a zdůrazňuje jeho dočasné trvání.
Forma: používáme tvar slovesa “have’’ pro minulý čas - had + been + ing tvar
významového slovesa



The whole place was deserted but it was obvious that someone had been staying
there.
While I had been preparing all the equipment, Jim had escaped.
It was more than a month until I realized what had been happening.
Předminulý čas průběhový netvoří trpný rod, používá se pouze tvar trpného rodu v prosté formě.
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9. Budoucí čas prostý a průběhový - Future Simple and Continuous
Budoucí čas prostý - Future Tense Simple
Budoucí čas prostý svojí formou vyjadřuje děj, jenž bude probíhat v budoucnosti nebo stav
budoucí, obojí v tzv.neutrální budoucnosti. Používá se pro vyjádření názoru na budoucí události,
naděje, předpovědi, slibu či hrozby, okamžitého rozhodnutí, nabídnutí pomoci atd.
Forma: tvoříme pomocí pomocného slovesa will + infinitivu významového slovesa
bez ‘‘to’’
Will se používá pro všechny osoby jednotného i množného čísla. Tvar shall byl a je využíván pro
vyjádření budoucího času pro 1.osobu jednotného a 1.osobu množného čísla; jeho využítí zůstává
zejména ve formě otázek s modálním zabarvením.





This container will hold 5 liters of petrol
We will only perform a preliminary analysis.
I will return / I shall return to this possibility later.
I think he won’t finish in time.
Shall I prepare the equipment for the experiment now?
forma trpného rodu je tvořena pomocným slovesem will + be + minulým příčestím
významového slovesa



This container will be filled with sulphur acid.
All the experiment will be repeated several times.
The conference will be held next week in London.
Budoucí čas průběhový – Future Tense Continuous
Budoucí průběhový čas vyjadřuje děj, který bude probíhat v určitém známém nebo uvedeném
čase. Čas je uveden konkrétním příslovečným určením času či jiným časovým vyjádřením.
Forma: tvoříme pomocí pomocného slovesa will + be + ing tvaru významového slovesa



He will be leaving in a few days.
You will be hearing from us in any case.
We will be working in the lab whole day tomorrow.
Jiné způsoby vyjadřování budoucnosti :

Přítomný čas prostý – pro vyjádření budoucího děje, jenž je přesně určen, dán dle
programu, harmonogramu atd.
-
The lecture starts on Tuesday at 10.
The last train leaves at 20.40.
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
Přítomný čas průběhový – pro vyjádření plánu či děje, který je jistý a předem připravený
-
I am seeing the new director tomorrow morning.
He is studying at Yale University next school term.
vazba going to - pro vyjádření budoucnosti, která je závislá na vůli či úmyslu mluvčího;
vyjadřuje úmysl, plán, záměr; Používá se take pro vyjádření předpovědi události, založené na
současném dění.
-
We are going to carry out the experiment again to gain some better results.
Look! The glass is going to fall.
Předbudoucí čas prostý a průběhový - Future Perfect Simple and
Continuous
10.
Předbudoucí čas prostý zahrnuje budoucnost předcházející před pozdější dobou budoucí.
Používáme jej pro děje a činnosti, které budou v nějaký okamžik v budoucnosti, o kterém
mluvíme, již dokončené. Vyskytuje se zpravidla s časovým určením či celou vedlejší větou
časovou.
Forma: tvoříme pomocí pomocného slovesa will + have + minulého příčestí
významového slovesa

By the time we get to the classroom the lecture will have started.
forma trpného rodu je tvořena pomocným slovesem will + have + been + minulého
příčestí významového slovesa


By the end of this year the new building of our university will have been finished.
We hope that by the end of this century a new drug against cancer will have been
discovered.
Předbudoucí průběhový čas vyjadřuje, co v nějaký moment v budoucnosti bude už nějaký čas
probíhat. Počátek tohoto děje nebo činnosti se může vztahovat k minulosti a trvat až do určitého
okamžiku v budoucnosti.
Forma: tvoříme pomocí pomocného slovesa will + have + been + ing tvaru významového
slovesa


Next year I will have been working at the Institute for fifteen years.
By the time I get there, they will have been waiting for me for two hours.
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Souslednost časů - Sequence of Tenses
A. Roentgen showed that the X-rays could penetrate matter.
Roentgen ukázal (objevil), že paprsky X mohou pronikat hmotou.
B. Roentgen reported that he had discovered a new kind of rays.
Roentgen oznámil, že objevil nový druh paprsků.
C. Roentgen reported that in 1891 he discovered a new kind of rays.
Roentgen oznámil, že r. 1891 objevil nový druh paprsků.
D. It was not known if the results of tests would be useful.
Nevědělo se (nebylo známo), zda výsledky zkoušek budou užitečné.
E. Chemists found that all organic compounds contain carbon.
Chemici zjistili, že všechny organické sloučeniny obsahují uhlík.
Sousledností časů (Sequence of Tenses, český termín též časová souslednost) rozumíme závislost
tvaru určitého slovesa ve vedlejší předmětné větě na čase slovesa v hlavní či řídící větě.
Podstatou časové souslednosti je pojetí minulého děje, který skončil v minulosti a nepřesahuje do
reálné přítomnosti nebo do budoucnosti, jako uzavřeného celku, v němž nelze užívat přítomný,
minulý a budoucí čas z hlediska nynější reálné přítomnosti.
!!! Je-li věta hlavní v čase minulém (např. “he said”, “I asked”, “she thought”), musí tomuto času
odpovídat i časy ve větě vedlejší (na rozdíl od češtiny). Prakticky dochází k posunu o “jeden čas
zpět”.
Je-li v angličtině (týká se to i jiných jazyků) sloveso v hlavní větě v čase přítomném,
předpřítomném nebo budoucím, čas slovesa ve vedlejší větě není ovlivněn a nemění se.
Podobně je tomu, jedná-li se o stále či obecné platné tvrzení – v těchto případech časový posun
není nutný.
Pro překlad časové souslednosti z angličtiny platí tato pravidla:
Je-li v hlavní nebo řídící větě minulý čas (past tense) nebo předminulý čas (past perfect) nebo
podmiňovací způsob minulý reálný (skutečný, resp. uskutečnitelný) - v angličtině se ve vedlejší
větě časy posouvají, ale v češtině nikoliv.
a) angl. minulý čas ve vedlejší větě se do češtiny překládá přítomným časem

He told me he was hungry.
b) angl. předminulý čas ve vedlejší větě se do češtiny překládá minulým
časem

He told them he had written the report the day before yesterday.
¨
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c) je-li ve vedlejší větě časové určení, datum či letopočet, překládá
se angl. minulý čas do češtiny také minulým časem

Roentgen reported that in 1891 he discovered a new kind of rays.
d) would pro vyjádření minulosti v budoucnosti ve vedlejší větě se překládá
budoucím časem

He informed us that he would prepare the the copy later.
Pro překlad z češtiny do angličtiny je tedy třeba dbát na posun časů podle následujících pravidel.
Po čase minulém a předminulém a po podmínkovém způsobu reálném (skutečném) minulém
nebo nereálném (neskutečném) v přítomnosti či v minulosti v hlavní resp. řídící větě se
v angličtině ve vedlejší větě (tj. po spojkách že, zda, kdy, kde) mění:
a) přítomný čas v minulý
-
Pokud se ovšem jedná o stále či obecně platné tvrzení, k posunu dojít nemusí, tzn. ve
vedlejší větě můžeme užít jak čas přítomný, tak minulý (např. He proved that the earth
is/was round; Tom said he wants/wanted to visit Paris next year.).
b) předpřítomný čas v předminulý
c) minulý čas v předminulý
-
K tomuto posunu dochází zejména, pokud by mohlo dojít k nesprávnému pochopení. Jinak
je možné věty v minulém čase ponechat v nepřímé řeči beze změny, např.:
direct
Lucy said: “I woke up feeling ill, so I didn’t go to school.”
reported Lucy said she woke up feeling ill, so she didn’t go to work.”
or
Lucy said she had woken up feeling ill, so she hadn’t gone to school.”
d) will + inf se změní ve would + inf, pokud nejde o platné tvrzení
e) modální slovesa (must, might, could should, would) se většinou nemění
Must zůstává v souslednosti časů beze změny, vyjadřuje-li trvalou nutnost nebo zákaz
(jinak by se u posunu časů používal opis pomocí příslušných tvarů např. slovesa have to):
 The doctor said that I must not smoke.
V nepřímé řeči zůstávají beze změny ve větě vedlejší i minulá modální slovesa
(would/should/might/must/can’t/needn’t have + past participle) a předminulý čas.
Nepřímá řeč a nepřímá otázka – Indirect speech and indirect question
Pravidla časové souslednosti se uplatňují v nepřímé řeči, tj. v reprodukci přímé řeči nebo přímé
otázky po slovesech s významem mluvení, myšlení a vnímání, např. say, tell, ask, answer, reply,
announce, report, write, read, want to know, know, learn (dovědět se), feel. Vedlejší věta se
připojuje k řídící větě spojkou that = že, která se může vynechat (zejména v hovoru), pokud se tím
neporuší smysl věty.
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

I told you I wouldn’t forget.
Řekl jsem ti, že nezapomenu.
She promised she would send some information. Slíbila, že pošle
nějaké informace.
Pozor na nepřímé otázky – slovosled je stejný jako v oznamovací větě (S – V pattern).


He often asks how you live.
She didn’t know where her sister was.
Často se ptá, jak žiješ.
Nevěděla, kde je její sestra.
Rozkaz nebo žádost se uvádí v nepřímé řeči slovesy ask, tell, order apod.
Rozkazovací způsob se přitom v nepřímé řeči mění na infinitiv:
 The teacher said to his students: “Don’t do it.”
 The teacher told (asked) his students not to do it.
Notice:
1) Při změně přímé řeči v nepřímou se mění i osobní zájmena a příslovečná
určení času a místa, např.:
HERE
"I would love to live here."
THIS
"I didn’t like this movie."
NOW
"I want to go there now."
"I don't want to do it now."
TODAY, THIS MONTH...
"I haven‘t seen him today."
"I enjoy the classes this year."
→ THERE
He said he would love to live there.
→ THAT
He said he hadn’t liked that movie.
→ THEN, AT THAT MOMENT
He said he wanted to go there at that moment.
He said he didn't want to do it then.
→ THAT DAY, THAT MONTH
He said he hadn’t seen him that day.
He said he enjoyed the classes that year.
AGO
→ BEFORE
"I sent the email three days ago."
YESTERDAY, LAST MONTH
"I called you yesterday."
"Last month was very sunny."
TOMORROW, NEXT MONTH
"I'll buy it tomorrow."
He said he had sent the email three days before.
→ THE DAY BEFORE, THE PREVIOUS...
He said he had called me the day before.
He said the previous month had been very sunny.
→ THE FOLLOWING DAY...
He said he would buy it the following day.
He said he would travel there the following
summer.
"I'll travel there next summer."
Přímá řeč (Direct speech):
Professor Green said: “I was here, in this laboratory, yesterday”.
Nepřímá řeč (Indirect/Reported speech):
Professor Green said that he had been there, in that laboratory, the day before.
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For more details see e.g. English Grammar in Use for intermediate students – Raymond Murphy
Intermediate Language Practice - Michael Vince
First Certificate Language Practice – Michael Vince
Exercises:
1. Choose the correct form of Present Tense. Give the reasons of your choice between
the simple and continuous forms.
1. Mary is working/work/works in the laboratory with nitric acid every day. 2. George is busy
now. He test/tests/is testing the content of sugar in the specimen of a newly manufactured fruit
jam. 3. Are you regularly using/do you regularly use sweeteners in your morning tea or coffee?
4. Not all liquids boil/are boiling at 100°C. 5. Antioxidants are playing/play an important role
in food preservation.
.
2. Put the verbs in brackets in the correct tense.
1. Look at Anne’s vessel! She ………….. (dye) the solution inside with an intense
colourant.. The solution was white and now it is red.
2. I ……..... (lose) my goggles. I can’t find them anywhere.
3. And I ............ (lose) my glasses yesterday.
4. ………….anything………. (change) in the laboratory since I last……… (see) you?
5. The experiment with nitrate acid .................... (not finish) yet. I’ll have to work overtime.
3. Simple or Continuous tense?
1. Professor Black studies/had studied/has been studying food additives since he has
started/had started/started work at this College in 2007.
2. Earlier, any chemicals added to food either as pesticides in primary production or
additives in processing, were considering/were considered suspect.
3. The increasing awareness of problems with food allergy and intolerance was leading/led/
has led to the requirement to state the source of certain emulsifiers on food labelling.
4. The amount of water we were adding/we added for half an hour to the mixture was
dependent on the pressure of the distillation.
5. They prepared/were preparing synthetic salt and therefore were placing/placed a piece
of sodium in a flask with chlorine.
6. Carbon is occuring/occurs in two crystalline forms that differ in their properties.
7. Lecithin, an emulsifier not suitable for individuals with an allergy to soya, is not being
produced/produced in this factory.
8. When was the University of Chemistry and Technology in Prague being established/
established?
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9. I prepared/was preparing the experiment with colouring foodstuffs the whole
afternoon yesterday.
10. Next year, Professor White will teach/will have been teaching/will be teaching at our
university for ten years.
4. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct forms.
1. Fleming ………………. (study) influenza when he ………………(discover)
penicillin.
2. I …………… (never do) anything I ……………(feel) is against my principles.
3. Matter ………….. (consist) of small elements.
4. Watson and Crick ………………….. (identify) the structure of DNA in 1953.
5. Fill in the gaps with fitting expressions.
1. By the time I arrived at the laboratory
…………………………..
a) …acting on the appropriate
nerve receptor
2. When you return from abroad next week,
……………………………………..
b) … moderate consumption of
cola is completely safe
3. Researchers in Cagliari, Italy, have
uncovered scientific evidence that
………………………………………. is the
result of chemicals.
c) … the course will have
finished
4. The pills ……………………………….
might cut out chocolate
cravings altogether, the researchers said.
d)… my colleagues had left
5. While excessive consumption of cola
e) … craving for chocolate
can lead to weakness and even muscle paralysis,
…………………………, a Soft Drinks Association
spokesperson said.
6. Translate the sentences from exercise 5 above into Czech.
7. Translate into Czech (taking into account that the principles of the sequence of tenses
used in English do not apply in Czech).
One of our teachers remarked that many people were not aware of the fact that the food industry
using the achievements of chemistry that had been reached, in particular, in the preservation of
food along with the manufacture of synthetic additives, had made significant progress as early as
in the latter part of the 19th century, not speaking of the first half of the 20th century. At the same
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time, the progress in physics was very fast. Let us mention that when Thomson discovered the
electron, he proved that there were particles which were smaller than the smallest atom known.
Roentgen found that the X-rays would pass through solid substances. In 1932 Chadwick reported
that he had discovered the neutron. The Curies found that pitchblende was several times more
active than uranium oxide. Becquerel noticed that salts of uranium possessed the property of
emitting rays.
PASSIVE VOICE
The passive voice is widely used in scientific texts due to the fact that what goes first in the
English sentence is considered to be the most important. Scientific texts tend to use passive voice
structures frequently to make sentences sound more objective and avoid using personal pronouns.
In Czech we use passive structures less commonly.
Structure:
subject
(which is not the agent)
The thesis
The thesis
verb to be in appropriate
tense form
is/was/has been/will be etc.
is/was etc. being
3rd form of
the content verb
written
written
When the continuous form is needed, we insert being (-ing form of the verb to be) between the
verb to be and the content verb.
I wrote the thesis. – The thesis was written.
I have written the thesis. – The thesis has been written.
I will write the thesis. – The thesis will be written.
I’m writing the thesis. – The thesis is being written.
Structure of the passive voice in combination with the infinitive (which is not used
in Czech): subject + passive + infinitive
The verbs believe, expect, know, report, say, think, suppose, understand are often used in the
present simple passive followed by an infinitive.
He is said to live here (←It is said that he lives here. – the subject of the second sentence replaces
“it” from the first sentence and the rest is connected in the form of infinitive).
He is said to have lived here. (←It is said that he lived here.)
The new library is supposed to open next week.
The economy is expected to grow by 2% this year.
The simple infinitive refers to the same time as that of the preceding verb:
This compound is expected not to react. (Notice: The negative particle not precedes the particle
to.)
The perfect infinitive refers to a time before that of the preceding verb:
This decade is known to have been a decade of many discoveries.
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Exercises:
1. Translate using the passive voice in the appropriate tense.
a/
b/
c/
d/
e/
f/
g/
h/
i/
j/
Tyto látky se zde nevyrábějí.
Ten program se právě instaluje.
Kdy byla založena tato škola?
Takovéto věci nelze tolerovat.
Co tam je napsáno?.
Byla ta směs dostatečně ochlazena?
Druhou šanci už nikdy nedostal.
Rozlili kyselinu po celém laboratorním stole.
Ví se, že tato sloučenina je prudce jedovatá.
Neočekávalo se, že to vybouchne.
2. Transform the following sentences into passive voice.
a/
b/
c/
d/
e/
f/
g/
h/
i/
j/
He has broken another vessel.
Unstable conditions influenced our experiment.
She has sent us new laboratory records.
She should have performed the tests more carefully.
The filter has caught poisonous substances.
We prepared a new compound yesterday.
She deleted all her experimental results by accident.
My teacher has explained this to me.
Students have spilt a dangerous chemical.
She has made a huge mistake in her calculations.
3. Transform the following sentences into the passive + infinitive.
ex. It is said he will return soon. – He is said to return soon.
a/
b/
c/
d/
e/
f/
g/
h/
i/
It is known that many elements react this way.
It is believed that this new discovery can save many lives.
It is expected that this element can occur in two allotropic modifications.
It is thought that they have made a real breakthrough in the research of radioactivity.
It was supposed that citric acid does not display any harmful effects.
It is assumed this company does not use preservatives of any kind.
It is reported that all the devices have been calibrated for our experiment.
It is estimated that the experiment has failed due to incorrect temperature settings.
It was said he had really discovered seven new substances.
For more practice see:
MURPHY, R. English Grammar in Use, Cambridge University Press, units 41 – 44
PETERS, S.; GRAF, T. Cvičebnice anglické gramatiky, Polyglot, unit 13
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RELATIVE CLAUSES
1/ defining relative clauses
2/ non-defining relative clauses
1/ Defining relative clauses are an essential part of the message of the sentence (they clearly
identify which person or thing we are talking about) and therefore cannot be omitted and are
not separated with commas.
 The doctor who treated me told me not to worry.
2/ Non-defining relative clauses bring additional but non-essential information (facts, opinions),
so they are marked with commas and could be easily left out without the main sentence losing
its meaning.
 Alexander Fleming, who died in 1955, was a Scottish biologist, pharmacologist and
botanist.
Relative pronouns: who for people, which for things and that for both categories. However who
is preferred for people and in defining clauses that is usually used for objects. We can drop the
relative pronoun if it defines the object of the clause (this applies to defining clauses only).
 My friend (who) I visited on Saturday has just called me.
 The doctor I spoke to told me not to worry.
In non-defining relative clauses “that“ is not used, so we only use “who“ for people and “which“
for objects and we do not leave the relative pronoun out of the sentence.
 The doctor who treated me was very professional.
Possessive whose is used for people and for things.
….the student whose diploma thesis…
…the laboratory whose windows….
Relative adverbs: where, when, why describe place, time or reason. Instead of a relative adverb,
we can use a preposition + which.
 That was a year when I graduated. / That was a year in which I graduated.
Notice:
Which may also be used in non-defining clauses to refer to the whole of the main sentence (this
corresponds with the Czech relative pronoun “což”).
 He didn´t call me, which was disappointing.
Notice:
What cannot be used as a relative pronoun. It is a pronoun that introduces object clauses.
He told me what he did. (what = the thing that, everything that, all that…) - object clause
He told me everything (that) he did. - relative clause
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Exercises:
1. a/ Explain the following words using relative pronouns or adverbs.
ex.: knife – a knife is a tool which..... or: a teacher is a person who...
dean, inorganic chemistry, optional subject, chemist, library, oxygen, lecture hall
thermometer, researcher
b/ In pairs, think of any word and describe it to your friend without saying what it is.
Your friend will try to guess what your word is. Change roles. Use relative clauses (It is
a thing that... etc).
2. Join the following pairs of sentences using relative pronouns.
Make the underline sentence the relative clause.
a/
b/
c/
d/
e/
f/
g/
h/
The teacher is very strict. He teaches chemistry.
Peter speaks German. His wife is from Austria.
The new dean is very popular. He gets on well with students.
We spoke to a teacher. He gave us some instructions.
We need to work with a poisonous chemical. It is stored in a special receptacle.
It was 2005. I met him for the first time.
We work in a laboratory. It’s cool.
We work in a laboratory. It’s cool.
3. Decide which relative pronoun is correct and where it could be omitted.
a/ The man who/which called is our schoolmate.
b/ Have you found the books who/that I lent you?
c/ It is the best news that/which came today.
d/ It is the best news that/which I have heard so far.
e/ I sent her all the notes that/what I had.
f/ I sent her that/what I had.
g/ I went to a place where/which/that I could work undisturbed .
h/ This is the student who/that/whose work has won the first place in our competition.
i/ I work for a firm which/that sells chemicals.
j/ I couldn´t complete my research, who/that/which was a pity.
For more practice see:
MURPHY, R. English Grammar in Use, Cambridge University Press, units 91 – 95
PETERS, S.; GRAF, T. Cvičebnice anglické gramatiky, Polyglot, unit 23
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COMMON AFFIXES
Common noun suffixes:
-er
-or
-ist
-er
-or
person who does an activity
-er
-ee
person who does something
person who recieves or experiences
the action
-ity
-ing
-ment
-ance
-ence
-ation
-ion
-age
-hood
-ness
things which do a particular job
abstract nouns derived from
adjectives
researcher
director
chemist
stirrer
projector
employer
employee
purity, density
testing
measurement
appearance
difference
distillation
discussion
passage
childhood
bitterness
Common adjective suffixes
-al
-ous
-ic
-ive
-y
-able,-ible
-ful
-less
means ‘can be done’
often means ‘full of’+the meaning
of the adjective
means ‘without’+ the meaning of the
adjective
chemical, physical
dangerous
toxic, sulphuric
relative
milky
washable, visible
careful, useful
careless, hopeless
Common verb suffixes
-ify
-ize
-ate
to solidify, to purify
to specialize
to separate, to evaporate
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Common prefixes
Meaning: not or opposite of
uniminilirdismisnonde-
unusual
impossible
invisible
illegal
irregular
to disappear
to misunderstand
non-metal
to decompose
Meaning: again or back
re-
to redestill, to recycle
Meaning: self
auto-
automatic
Meaning: between
inter-
international
Meaning: out of
ex-
to extract
Meaning: bad, badly
mal-
maladjustment
Meaning: put in, make
en-
to encapsulate
Meaning: one
monouni-
monoculture
unicellular
Meaning: two
bidi-
bipolar, bivalent
divalent
Meaning: three
tri-
tripod
Meaning: many
multipoly-
multivalent (having a valency of 3 or
higher)
polyvalent (having more than 1 valency
Meaning: too much
over-
to overestimate
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Meaning: not enough
under-
to underestimate
Meaning: behind, after
post-
postgraduate
Meaning: first, before
pre-
to predict
Meaning: half
semi-
semiconductor
Meaning: under, at lower level
sub-
subdivided
Meaning: across, change
trans-
to transform
Meaning: very, above a limit
hypersuperultra-
hypersonic (at least 5 times faster than
sound)
supersonic
ultralight
Excercises:
1. Form the words and fill the spaces
The ……………… of water through several filter-beds and the ……………… of traces of
chlorine make the water safe for drinking purposes (pass/add).
The ……………… and …………… can be observed in everyday life (evaporate/condense).
The ……………… of a calcium compound increases the ……………… of water (contain/hard).
Archimedes’ principle tells us about the ……………… of water by solid bodies (displace).
The ……………… of rain depends on the ……………… and ……………… of tiny droplets of
water in the cloud (form/condense/combine).
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2. Fill in the following table and then use the words in short sentences
Verb
produce
analyse
develop
explore
research
manage
Adjective
Noun (person)
Noun (thing/process)
ENGLISH SPECIFIC INFINITIVE STRUCTURES
Some infinitive structures that are used in scientific English do not have equivalent Czech
counterparts, and therefore need to be translated by using other linguistic tools.
1. To express result
e.g. Hydrogen burns in air to give water vapour.
Hydrogen is used in the hydrogenation of liquid fats to form solid fats.
Translation: a (tvoří), za (tvorby, vzniku…)
Only a few verbs are used in this form (namely give, form, produce and yield) and they
usually follow a verb describing a chemical process or reaction, such as burn, react,
combine, unite, dissolve, decompose, boil, polymerize, hydrogenate etc.
2. To express purpose
e.g. a) The compound must be heated (in order / so as) to decompose.
In this sentence the two verbs – ‘heated’ and ‘decompose’ are linked to the same
subject – ‘compound’, so we can simply use the infinitive to express the purpose of
the action.)
b) The reaction mixture must be heated for the reaction to occur.
In this sentence we have two subjects – ‘mixture’ and ‘reaction’. Therefore we
need to use for to introduce the second subject.
Translation: aby
3. To specify a noun
e.g.: the condition to be controlled
Translation: podmínka, která má být/ bude sledována
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4. To provide information about knowledge or findings
verb + object + infinitive
e.g.: She found the intensity to be greater. (= She found that the intensity was greater.)
We know Roentgen to have discovered the X-rays. (= We know that Roentgen
discovered the X rays.)
Translation: Zjistila, že… je
Víme, že…. objevil
The same information can be in the passive:
subject + passive verb + infinitive
e.g.: The intensity was found to be greater.
Roentgen is known to have discovered the X-rays.
Translation:
Zjistilo se, že …
O Roentgenovi je známo, že …..
Exercises:
1.Translate
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
We know carbon to occur in two crystalline forms that differ in their properties.
To prepare synthetic salt place a piece of sodium in a flask with chlorine.
The amount of water to be added is dependent on the pressure of the distillation.
The solution of carbon dioxide in water is found to colour blue litmus red, showing it to be
a weak acid.
The reaction mixture must be brought to a sufficiently high temperature for the reaction to
occur.
The material to be weighed is transported to and from balance room in a desiccator.
We found the value to depend on many various factors.
The alloy was found to be composed of silver and gold.
For more practice see:
R. Murphy: Essential Grammar in Use, Units 52, 53
R. Murphy:English Grammar in Use, Units 63, 64
M. Vince: Advanced Language Practice, Grammar 6 – reporting verbs
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GRAMMAR KEY
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
1. Arrange these words in the right order.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
You shouldn’t work in the lab at night.
You should study this chapter more carefully.
When did the students finish the project?
Who saw the experiment?
The students have enjoyed the lectures.
Carbonic acid decomposes at once.
Water power can make cheap electricity.
May students smoke in the lab?
2. Arrange these words in the right order.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
I quickly read your article in bed last night.
The students worked till 4 o’clock this afternoon.
Carbon dioxide and other gases allow the sun’s rays to enter.
Computer models of climate changes indicate some consequences of a warming Earth.
Nitrous oxide is released in the burning of coal.
Only cooking can destroy the micro-organisms completely.
3. Make questions to ask about the underlined statements using who, what or where.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
Who did you meet last night?
What has the scientist found?
Who took the pictures?
What occurs naturally under certain conditions?
Who published their new findings?
What will we have to redistill?
Where does the condensate flow?
What does distillation consist in?
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4. Read the text, and then write questions for the answers.
The educational programme is divided into Academic Years, each year being divided into two
semesters, with the main vacation in July and August. The undergraduate studies take three years
for the Bachelor Degree and five for the Master Degree. In addition to these, the Institute provides
also postgraduate courses for PhD students.
All studies proceed on the basis of a curriculum of studies. At the end of each semester every
student must obtain a certain number of credits and pass several examinations.
Students may obtain certain scholarships. These may be granted either automatically for excellent
study results or on the basis of excellent research achievements, cultural or sports activities, and
also to aid in the cases of serious social problems.
Graduates of the Institute usually find employment in plants and research laboratories of chemical
and food industries as well as in various research institutes.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
What is the educational programme divided into?
When is the main vacation?
How long do the undergraduate studies take for the Bachelor Degree?
What does the Institute also provide?
Who must obtain a certain number of credits and pass several examinations at the end of
each semester?
f. What may certain scholarships be granted for?
g. In what kind of industries do graduates of the Institute usually find employment?
VERB TENSES
1. Choose the correct form of Present Tense. Give the reasons of your choice between
the simple and continuous forms.
1. works
2. is testing
3. do you…use…
4. boil
5. play
2. Put the verbs in brackets in the correct tense.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
has dyed
have lost
lost
Has anything changed ….. I last saw you
has not finished
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3. Simple or Continuous tense?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
has been studying
started
were considered
has led
we were adding
they were preparing placed
occurs
is not produced
was established
was preparing
will have been teaching
4. Put the verb in brackets into the correct form.
1.
2.
3.
4.
was studying
have never done
consists
identified
discovered
feel
5. Fill in the gaps with fitting expressions.
1d)
2c)
3e)
4 a)
5b)
6. Translate the sentences from exercise 5 above into Czech.
1. Když jsem přišel do laboratoře, moji kolegové už byli pryč.
2. Až se příští týden vrátíš ze zahraničí, kurz už bude ukončen.
3. Výzkumníci v Cagliari v Itálii získali vědecké důkazy že neodolatelnou touhu po
čokoládě působí chemikálie.
4. Pilulky působící na příslušný nervový receptor by mohly zcela odstranit touhu po
čokoládě, jak uvedli výzkumníci.
5. Zatímco nadměrné požívání koly může vést k oslabení a dokonce k ochromení svalů,
umírněná konzumace nápojů kola je zcela bezpečná, řekla mluvčí Soft Drinks
Association.
7. Translate into Czech (taking into account that Czech does not apply the principles
of the sequence of tenses used in English.
Jeden z našich učitelů podotkl, že mnoho lidí si není vědomo, že potravinářský průmysl
využívající úspěchů chemie, které byly dosaženy zejména v konzervování potravin spolu s
výrobou syntetických přísad, dosáhl významného pokroku již ve druhé polovině 19. století,
nemluvě o 1. polovině 20.století. Zároveň byl velmi rychlý pokrok ve fyzice. Zmiňme se, že
když Thomson objevil elektron, dokázal, že jsou (existují) částice, které jsou menší než
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nejmenší známý atom. Roentgen zjistil, že paprsky X projdou pevnými látkami. R. 1932
oznámil Chadwick, že objevil neutron. (Manželé) Curieovi zjistili, že smolinec je mnohokrát
aktivnější než kysličník uranový. Becquerel zjistil, že soli uranu mají schopnost (=vlastnost)
vyzařování paprsků.
PASSIVE VOICE
1. Translate using the passive voice in an appropriate tense.
a/
b/
c/
d/
e/
f/
g/
h/
i/
These substances are not produced here.
The program is just being installed.
When was this school established?
Such things cannot be tolerated.
What is written there?
Has this mixture been cooled sufficiently?
He has never been given a second chance/A second chance has never been given to him.
An acid has been spilt all over the laboratory table.
This compound is known to be highly poisonous. / It is known (that) this compound is highly
poisonous.
j/ It was expected to explode. / It was expected (that) it would explode.
2. Transform the following sentences into passive voice.
a/ Another vessel has been broken.
b/ Our experiment was influenced by unstable conditions.
c/ New laboratory records have been sent to us.
d/ The tests should have been performed more carefully.
e/ Poisonous substances have been caught by the filter.
f/ A new compound was prepared yesterday.
g/ All her experimental results were deleted by accident.
h/ This was explained to me (by my teacher) last lesson.
i/ A dangerous chemical has been spilt (by students).
j/ A huge mistake has been made in her calculations.
3. Transform the following sentences into the passive+infinitive.
Ex. It is said he will return soon. – He is said to return soon.
a/
b/
c/
d/
e/
Many elements are known to react this way.
This new discovery is believed to be able to save many lives.
This element is expected to occur in two allotropic modifications.
They are thought to have made a real breakthrough in the research of radioactivity.
Citric acid was supposed not to display any harmful effects.
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f/
g/
h/
i/
This company is assumed not to use preservatives of any kind.
All the devices are reported to have been calibrated for our experiment.
The experiment is estimated to have failed due to incorrect temperature settings.
He was said to have discovered seven new substances.
RELATIVE CLAUSES
1. a/ Explain the following words using relative pronouns or adverbs.
ex.: knife – a knife is a tool which..... or: a teacher is a person who...
dean, inorganic chemistry, optional subject, chemist, library, oxygen, lecture hall
thermometer, researcher
b/ In pairs, think of any word and describe it to your friend without saying what it is,
your friend will try to guess what your word is, then change roles. For descriptions use
again relative clauses (it is a thing that... etc).
2. Join the following pairs of sentences using relative pronouns.
Make the underline sentence the relative clause.
a/ The teacher who teaches chemistry is very strict.
The teacher, who teaches chemistry, is very strict.
b/ Peter, whose wife is from Austria, speaks German.
c/ The new dean, who gets on well with students, is very popular.
d/ The teacher (that/who) we spoke to gave us some instructions.
e/ The poisonous chemical (that/which) we have to work with is stored in a special
receptacle.
f/ It was in 2005 when I met him for the first time.
2005 was the year (when/in which) I met him for the first time.
g/ The laboratory where we work is cool.
The laboratory in which we work is cool.
The laboratory which we work in is cool.
h/ We work in a laboratory that/which is cool.
We work in a laboratory, which is cool.
3. Decide which relative pronoun is correct and where it could be omitted.
a/
b/
c/
d/
e/
f/
g/
h/
i/
j/
The man who called is our schoolmate.
Have you found the books (that) I lent (to) you?
It is the best news that/which came today.
It is the best news (that/which) I have heard so far.
I sent her all the notes (that) I had.
I sent her what I had.
I went to the place where I could work undisturbed.
This is the student whose work has won the first place in our competition.
I work for a firm which/that sells chemicals.
I couldn´t complete my research, which was a pity.
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COMMON AFFIXES
1. Form the words and fill the spaces
The passage of water through several filter-beds and the addition of traces of chlorine make the
water safe for drinking purposes (pass/add).
The evaporation and condensation can be observed in everyday life (evaporate/condense).
The content of a calcium compound increases the hardness of water (contain/hard).
Archimedes’ principle tells us about the displacement of water by solid bodies (displace).
The formation of rain depends on the condensation and combination of tiny droplets of water in
the cloud (form/condense/combine).
2. Fill in the following table and then use the words in short sentences
Verb
produce
analyse
develop
explore
research
manage
Adjective
producing/produced
analytical
developing/developed
exploring/explored
researching
managerial
Noun (person)
producer
analyst
developer
explorer
researcher
manager
Noun (thing/process)
product/production
analysis
development
exploration
research
management
ENGLISH SPECIFIC INFINITIVE STRUCTURES
1. Translate
1. Víme, že uhlík se vyskytuje ve dvou krystalických podobách, které se liší svými
vlastnostmi.
2. Abyste připravili umělou sůl, umístěte kousek sodíku do banky s chlórem.
3. Množství vody, která se má přidat, záleží na tlaku destilace.
4. Zjistíme, že roztok oxidu uhličitého ve vodě barví modrý lakmusový papírek na červeno,
tím ukazuje, že jde o slabou kyselinu.
5. Aby reakce nastala, reakční směs se musí přivést na dostatečně vysokou teplotu.
6. Materiál ke zvážení se přepravuje do a z váhovny v sušičce.
7. Zjistíme, že hodnota závisí na mnoha různých faktorech.
8. Zjistilo se, že slitina se skládá ze stříbra a zlata.
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