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THE BIG THREE EASTERN EUROPEAN MONARCHIES:
AUSTRIA, PRUSSIA, AND RUSSIA IN THE AGE OF ABSOLUTE MONARCHY
I.
Austria: Continuing power in a new direction
A. The Habsburg dynasty failed in its attempt to centralize and consolidate its monarchical power over the
Holy Roman Empire in the Thirty Years’ War
1. The Habsburgs continued to hold the title of Holy Roman Emperor although it was largely
ceremonial after the Peace of Westphalia
2. Habsburg power had always been based on the territory they controlled not the title of Holy Roman
Emperor
3. The Habsburgs concentrated on Austria as their base for power as a nation-state
4. The attention of the Habsburgs was turned to the southeast and the conflict with the Ottoman
Empire after the Thirty Years’ War
a. The new territory gained was mostly in non-Germanic lands
b. The Habsburgs found themselves with an empire composed of many of different nationalities
c. The Austrian-Habsburg Empire was a medieval-style empire of various languages and cultures
in the modern age of nation-states
B. The Habsburgs recovered and responded to make Austria one of the five Great Powers of the eighteenth
century
C. Leopold I (reigned 1657-1705)
1. Leopold resisted the power of the Ottoman Turks from the Balkans and Louis XIV of France from
the Rhineland
a. Louis XIV of France continued to oppose Habsburg power in Europe
b. Louis XIV financed Turkish military ventures against the Habsburg lands
c.
The last Turkish invasion of Habsburg lands was the siege of Vienna in 1683
2. Austria took the offensive against the Ottoman Empire after 1683
a. The Ottoman Empire was beginning to weaken due to poor emperors and advanced European
technology
b. Budapest, capital of Hungary, was captured in 1686
c.
Treaty of Karlowitz, 1699, gave the Habsburgs control of Hungary
d. Magyar aristocrats of Hungary were subjugated to the Habsburg monarchy
e. Prince Eugene of Savoy emerged as a skilled general of the Austrian military
3. Austria fought in both the War of the League of Augsburg and War of the Spanish Succession
a. The Habsburgs continued the old rivalry with France
b. Austria was a leading member of the anti-Louis XIV coalition
c.
The War of the Spanish Succession focused on the Habsburg-Bourbon conflict over the throne
of Spain
d. Prince Eugene of Savoy led the Austrian forces together with English forces under Sir John
Churchill to victory at the Battle of Blenheim, 1705
4. Leopold was followed by the short reign of Joseph I, 1705-1711
D. Charles VI (reigned 1711-1740)
a. The War of the Spanish Succession continued to its completion in 1714
i.
Prince Eugene of Savoy continued with Austrian victories
ii. The Habsburgs lost the throne of Spain to the Bourbons
iii. Austria gained the Spanish-Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium) and Spain’s holdings in
Italy (Naples, Sardinia, and Milan), all hereditary Habsburg lands
iv. Austria was confirmed as one of the 18th century’s great powers
b. Charles VI had no male heir
i.
No female had ever ruled Austria
ii. No woman had ever been elected as Holy Roman Emperor
c.
Charles VI proposed the Pragmatic Sanction calling for the respect of the right of his daughter,
Maria Theresa, to inherit all of the Habsburg lands
i.
The Pragmatic Sanction was accepted by the major nations of Europe and the nobility of
Austria
ii. The Pragmatic Sanction was broken by Frederick the Great of Prussia in 1740 as the Prussian
army seized Silesia beginning the War of the Austrian Succession
E. Maria Theresa (reigned 1740-1780)
1. Maria Theresa’s husband, Francis of Lorraine, was elected Holy Roman Emperor, 1740
a.
Francis held the title ceremonially
b.
The actual power was wielded by Maria Theresa
2. War of the Austrian Succession
a. Prussia invaded Austrian Silesia; Prussia was allied with France
b. Maria Theresa demonstrated her ability to rule during this conflict
c.
Austria allied itself with Britain, France’s enemy; France was allied with Prussia, Austria’s
enemy
d. War ended with Austria showing the power to withstand the Prussian army
e. Prussia was allowed to keep Silesia
3. Maria Theresa reformed and strengthened imperial rule based in part on the model of enlightened
despotism
a. Stripped the local nobility of provincial power
b. Created an efficient, centralized bureaucracy
c.
German became the official language in all government affairs
d. The nobility and clergy were taxed for the first time
e. State control over the Roman Catholic Church was established
4. The first Partition of Poland, 1772, gave Austria the province of Galicia
F. Joseph II (reigned 1765-1790)
1. Joseph II was technically joint ruler of Austria with his mother
a. Joseph II, was elected Holy Roman Emperor when his father died, 1765
b. Joseph really held little power until his mother’s death in 1780
2. Reform of government
a. Sought to govern in the spirit of enlightened despotism
b. Eliminated many internal tariffs to encouraged trade within Austria
c.
Used royal funds and tax concessions to encourage road building and improvements in river
transportation
d. Abolished serfdom in Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, and Transylvania
e. Abolished the robot, the law that obligated the peasants to perform services for the landed
nobility
f.
The robot was replaced with a tax which went in part to the nobility for compensation and in
part to the state to increase revenue
3. Religious policy
a. Granted complete religious toleration to all Christians
b. Removed many restrictions upon Jews
c.
Abolished many monasteries and convents, confiscated the lands, and collected the tax for the
state or sold for state income
d. Reduced the power of the papacy in Austria
i.
Bishops and high-ranking clergy were required to take an oath to the Austrian ruler
ii. All communications between church officials and the papacy had to be forwarded through
government offices in Vienna
4. Reforms of Joseph II brought turmoil
a. Peasants rose up demanding full rights
b. The nobility fought to keep its traditional privileges
c.
The Catholic Church objected to restrictions on its powers and the new religious toleration
d. The French Revolution began in 1789
i.
Both monarch and nobility were frightened by the events in France
ii. Marie Antoinette, Queen of France, was Joseph’s sister
iii. Many of the émigrés who fled France led by the Count Artois, brother of Louis XVI, went
to Austria asking for assistance
G. Leopold II (reigned 1790-1792)
1. The French Revolution brought a halt to reform and a strong fear of change
2. Most of the reforms of Joseph II were repealed or abandoned to conciliate the nobility
a. Serfdom was re-imposed
b. The robot remained in effect in most Habsburg domains until 1848
c.
The school system was abandoned
d. Religious toleration was withdrawn
II. Brandenburg - Prussia: Recovery and the rise to power
A. The Hohenzollern family came to rule the state of Brandenburg after 1415
1. The Hohenzollern family would rule Brandenburg-Prussia-Germany until the abdication of
Wilhelm II in 1918
2. The Elector of Brandenburg was one of the seven electors empowered by the Golden Bull of 1356
to elect the Holy Roman Emperor
3. The capital of Berlin was well situated
a. A good position for trade on north German rivers
b. Far enough from Vienna to lessen the influence of the Holy Roman Emperor
c.
Close to Poland which was losing its control over Prussia along the Baltic
4. By the end of the 17th century, the Elector of Brandenburg controlled an area of the Holy Roman
Empire second in size only to the Austrian Habsburgs
a. The scattered lands, were consolidated by a series of able rulers coming to power as the Thirty
Years’ War ended
b. The Hohenzollerns had gained control over the territories of East and West Prussia along the
Baltic coast outside the Holy Roman Empire
B. Frederick William, the “Great Elector” (ruled 1640-1688)
1. Led the recovery from the devastation of the Thirty Years’ War recognizing the importance of
military force to defend the Hohenzollern territory that lacked natural borders
2. Frederick William began his rule as the Hohenzollern lands had been devastated in the Thirty
Years’ War
3. Reduced the autonomy of the nobility, the Junkers
a. Created a service nobility that paid taxes to support the army
b. Recruited the Junkers to serve in the civil service or officer corps of the army
c. Increased the power of the Junkers over the serfs on their estates and did not interfere in their
dominance of the towns on their lands
d. The burden of taxation was still largely upon the peasants and the towns
e. Reduced the power of the estates, the provincial assemblies of the nobility
f.
Created an efficient civil service to administer the state
g. Created a great, efficient, modern army to protect the state
h. The power of the Hohenzollerns was based on the ruler’s alliance with the Junkers rather than
his opposition to it
4. Religious toleration was established in Brandenburg after the Thirty Years’ War
a. Huguenots from France, Jews from Poland, and Catholics from other German states were
welcome in Brandenburg
b. Talented religious refugees from other lands benefited the Brandenburg
C. Frederick I (ruled 1688-1713)
1. Known as a great patron of the arts and learning
2. Enjoyed living in luxury, an anomaly among the Hohenzollerns
3. Gave little attention to the army and government administration
4. War of the Spanish Succession (1700-1714)
a. Prussia supported the Habsburg claim to the Spanish throne
b. Rewarded with the title, King of Prussia, which became hereditary
c.
Prussia was not within the bounds of the Holy Roman Empire
d. The state of Brandenburg and the capital city of Berlin continued as the true center of the
Hohenzollern realm
D. Frederick William I (ruled (1713-1740)
1. Adopted a policy of austerity to restore financial stability
a. Imposed strict economy of government spending
b. Increased management of Prussian finances to maximize the state’s limited resources
c.
Left Prussia financially strong by greatly increasing the state’s income
2. Increased Prussian military power
a. Frederick William I was known as the “Sergeant King” for his attention to the military
b. More than doubled the size of the Prussian army from approximately 40,000 to over 80,000
c.
Prussia had the third largest army in Europe; it was 13th in population
d. Army officers increasingly became a privileged and prestigious social class
e. The officer corps began to attract the most talented sons of the Junker class
3. Kept Prussia at peace in spite of its military strength
E. Frederick II, “Frederick the Great” (ruled 1740-1786)
1. Established Prussia as one of the great powers of the 18th century
2. Wars of Frederick the Great
a. War of the Austrian Succession, 1740-48
i.
Challenged his father’s accession to the Pragmatic Sanction and seized the Austrian
province of Silesia
ii. Successfully formed an alliance with France, the traditional enemy of the Habsburgs
iii. Retained Silesia for Prussia following the war
b. Diplomatic Revolution, 1756
i.
Prussia formed an alliance with Great Britain (King George II was the Elector of Hanover)
ii. The alliance brought together the strongest army and strongest navy in Europe
c.
Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)
i.
Successfully fought off the allied troops of Austria, France, and Russia
ii. Maintained the Prussian hold on Silesia
3. Participated in the partition of Poland
a. Gained much of western Poland including West Prussia, Pomerania, and Danzig
b. Linked together East Prussia with the other Hohenzollern lands strengthening the nation
4. Reform program of Frederick the Great
a. Believed in the principles of enlightened despotism
b. Voltaire lived for a time at the palace of Frederick the Great in Potsdam
c.
Overall goal was to increase the power of the Prussian monarchy
d. Reorganized the government into new, more efficient agencies promoting Prussian industry and
trade
e. Reorganized the system of taxation increasing Prussian revenue
f.
Directed the codification of Prussian law and abolished torture in legal proceedings
5. Economic Policies
a. Promoted economic development through the expansion of industry in Brandenburg, Prussia,
and Silesia
b. Imposed protective tariffs to protect Prussia’s new industries
c.
Established the Bank of Berlin providing credit for business development
d. Built canals, drained swamps, and promoted new methods of agriculture
e. Introduced new crops such as potatoes and turnips
6. Religious policies
a. Practiced religious toleration of all Christian denominations
b. Opened up predominately Lutheran areas to Catholic settlement
III. Russia: Entry into European affairs and rise to power
A. Russia was cut off geographically from participation in mainstream European affairs
1. Russia had been consolidated under the Dukes of Moscow who took the title of Czar (Emperor) of
Russia under Ivan III (“Ivan the Great), 1462-1505
2. Russia had no warm-water ports on the open sea
a. Sweden and Poland controlled the good Baltic ports
b. The Ottoman Empire controlled the Black Sea
3. The Russian Orthodox Church opposed most communication and commerce with the Western
Christian (Catholic and Protestant) nations of Europe
4. The Ottoman Empire, Sweden, and Poland remained strong until the late seventeenth century
blocking Russian growth
B. The “Time of Troubles”, 1598-1613
1. The dynasty that had ruled Russia died out and factions of the nobility tried to gain control
2. The nobility (boyars) opposed strong Czars after the rule of Ivan IV (“Ivan the Terrible”), 1533-84
3. Poland and Sweden attacked Russia
a. Sweden extended its control over the north Baltic by seizing ports on the east Baltic coast
b. Poland invaded, occupied Moscow, and tried to make a Polish prince the Czar of Russia
C. The boyars (the nobility), the Russian Orthodox Church, and the streltsi (the Moscow-based army
troops) were the traditional forces that opposed a strong monarchy in Russia
D. Michael Romanov (ruled 1613-1645) was elected Czar by the Zemski Sobor, the assembly of
landowners
1. Michael Romanov began the Romanov dynasty that lasted until the abdication of Czar Nicholas II
in 1917
2. Michael Romanov increased his power by placating the boyars
a. Serfdom was extended giving the boyars control over the peasants
b. The Zemski Sobor was suppressed
c.
Russian explorers first reached the Pacific Ocean across sparsely populated Siberia, 1637
D. A serious schism developed in the Russian Orthodox Church
1. Czar Alexis (ruled 1645-1676) supported Nikon, the Patriarch of Moscow for political reasons
2. Nikon declared that the Church was superior to the state
3. Nikon was removed as Patriarch of Moscow and replaced by Alexis’ appointee
4. The Czar’s power increased over the Russian Orthodox Church
E. Peter the Great (ruled 1682-1725)
1. Rise to power
a. Became Czar as co-ruler with his sickly half-brother, Ivan V
b. Sophia, Peter’s half-sister, acted as regent until Peter reached his majority in 1689
c. Assumed full power as Czar upon Ivan’s death in 1696
2. Peter admired the advancements of Western Europe and wanted to modernize Russia based on the
Western European model
a. Peter toured Europe visiting Prussia, the Netherlands, England, and France, 1697-98
b. Peter’s half-sister, Sophia, conspired with Peter’s wife, several boyars, leaders of the Russian
Orthodox Church, and the leaders of the streltsi, the garrison of Moscow, to overthrow Peter
and place his son, Alexis, on the throne
c. The streltsi, which opposed a strong Czar, took advantage of Peter’s absence to re-assert its
power and rebelled in 1698
d. The rebellion of the streltsi was crushed with over 1200 executions
3. Peter moved to centralize power under the Czar along the model of European absolute monarchs
such as Louis XIV
a. Peter increased his control over the boyars
b. The boyars were forced to shave and adopt European dress
c. The tradition of the seclusion of Russian women was ended by decree
d. The nobility was forced to serve the state in either the civil service or the military following the
Prussian model
e. The boyars’ control over their serfs increased in exchange for boyar service to Peter and Russia
f.
The Table of Ranks was instituted which provided that an individual’s social position and
privileges were based on military or civil service rank rather than traditional noble status
g.
Peter forced the boyars to come to St. Petersburg for royal favors following the model of Louis
XIV and Versailles
4. Peter set out to improve the Russian economy by creating industry and increasing trade with Europe
a. Ordered the boyars to send their sons to Western Europe to learn new technical skills
b. Brought technicians and craftsmen from Western Europe to Russia to become the basis for new
Russian industry
c. Established schools and hospitals
d. Founded the Russian Academy of Science
e. Established state-owned mines and factories
f.
Provided government subsidies to help expand Russian industry
5. Peter’s program of westernization and his wars were very expensive
a. Instituted a head tax on every male and collected a tax on several state monopolies
b. Modernization program created a Russia divided into an upper class that was largely
westernized in its ways and the masses that were primarily peasants living in poverty and the
old traditional, Slavic ways
6. Peter increased the size and power of the Russian army and improved its organization based on the
Prussian model
7. Peter increased royal control over the Russian Orthodox Church
a. The Russian Orthodox Church opposed Peter’s policy of westernization because it was
modeled on western Christian nations (Roman Catholic and Protestant)
b. The office of Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church was abolished and Peter took direct
control of the Church
c. The “Holy Synod” consisting of royally-approved bishops headed by the royally-appointed
procurator-general was established by Peter
8. The reorganization of the Russian government by Peter increased centralize authority and
government efficiency
a. Followed the governmental model of Sweden using several individuals to head a department
rather than a single minister
b. Created departments for foreign affairs, the army, the navy, commerce, mines and
manufactures, income, expenditures, justice, and law enforcement
9. The Wars of Peter the Great
a. To gain warm-water ports along the Black and Baltic Seas, Peter fought wars against the
Ottoman Empire and Sweden
b. Russian-Turkish War, 1695-1711
i.
Russia captured the port of Azov on the Black Sea from the Turks in 1696
ii. The Turks regained the port in 1711
iii. Not regained by Russia until the reign of Catherine the Great
c. The Great Northern War with Sweden, 1700-1721
i.
Sweden under King Charles XII (ruled 1697-1718) defeated Russia at the Battle of Narva,
1700
ii. Peter established a new capital at St. Petersburg on Gulf of Finland: St. Petersburg,
Peter’s “window on the Baltic” or “window on the West” became the primary outlet for
Russian trade with Western Europe
iii. Russia defeated Sweden at the Battle of Poltava, 1709
iv. The Peace of Nystad, 1721
a). Russia acquired several Swedish provinces on the Baltic: Karelia, Ingria, Estonia, and
Livonia
b). Russia replaced Sweden as the new power along the northeastern Baltic
F. From Peter the Great to Catherine the Great, 1725-1762
1. Peter’s only son, Alexis, died in prison possibly killed by his father
2. The succession was unclear following Peter’s death in 1725
3. A series of ineffective Czars followed Peter
4. The boyars and the army reasserted themselves and held the real power in Russia
5. Peter III became Czar in 1762 although he was weak and mentally incompetent
6. His wife, Catherine, a German princess from Pomerania, led a coup of the army and the nobility
that overthrew Peter, had him murdered, and installed Catherine as Czarina
G. Catherine II (“Catherine the Great”) (ruled 1762-1796)
1. Reform of government
a. Believed in the principles of enlightened despotism
b. Actually did little to reform Russian government
c.
Established a Legislative Commission of over five hundred to propose reform in the legal
system, 1767-68
i.
Commission represented all of the classes of Russia except serfs
ii. Factions contended but would not compromise
iii. Catherine dismissed the Commission following only a few of the recommendations
d. Allowed nobility to keep their power over the serfs in exchange for support for her absolute rule
2. Economic affairs
a. Continued the development of Russian trade resources based on the model of Peter the Great
b. Reduced internal barriers to trade within Russia
c.
Increased Russian exports of flax, furs, grain, and naval stores
4. The Wars of Catherine the Great
a. Corresponded with Voltaire regularly
b. Diderot came to live in Russia for a time during Catherine’s reign
5. War with the Ottoman Empire, 1769-1774
a. The Ottoman Empire was forced to sign the Treaty of Kutchuk-Kainardji
b. Russia gained most of the Turkish lands on the northern coast along the Black Sea
c. Russia gained the right to use the Turkish Straits (the Bosporus and the Dardanelles) for access
to the Mediterranean Sea
d. The Crimea was recognized as independent and annexed by Russia in 1783
e. The Russian Czar was recognized as the protector of the Orthodox Christians under Turkish
rule, a pretext for later Russian intervention in the Ottoman Empire
6. War with the Ottoman Empire, 1787-1792
a. Russia pushed its border to the Dniester River
b. Russia gained the entire north Black Sea coastline
7. Russia gained eastern Poland in the partitions of Poland, 1772, 1793, 1795