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Culture and Nonverbal Communication
I.
Warm Up
Please discuss the following questions:
1. What is nonverbal communication?
2. Is it possible to communicate without nonverbal means? Why or why not?
3. What functions does our nonverbal behavior serve in communication?
II.
Nonverbal Communication?
Read the article “An Overview 概况 of Nonverbal Communication”
(p191-199). What is nonverbal communication inclusive of 包括 according
to it?
The article illustrates several different kinds of nonverbal behaviors in
five parts: paralanguage 副 语 言 (voice & intonation 声 调 p191-192),
kinesics 动作学(gesture p192-193, facial expression –smiles and laugh
p1996-197), oculesics 眼 神 学 (eye contact p194-196), haptics 触 觉 学
(handshaking & kissing p198-199).
Supplement: What is Nonverbal Communication?
Nonverbal communication is the process by which nonverbal behaviors
are used, either singly or in combination with verbal behaviors, in the
exchange and interpretation of messages within a given situation or context.
(L. A. Malandro, 1983)
Narrowly speaking, nonverbal communication refers to intentional 故
意 use of nonspoken symbol to communicate a specific message. Broadly
speaking, the term can be defined to refer to elements of 一部分 the
environment that communicate by virtue of 由于 people's use of be defined
to refer to elements of the environment that communicate by virtue of
people's use of them.
(i) ※Classifications of nonverbal communication by Knapp in 1972
1. kinesics or body language: gestures, posture, touch and feeling
(handshaking), artifacts, olfaction 嗅觉, etc.
2. oculesics or eye movements:
3. facial expressions:
4. proxemics: intimate space (0.5m), personal space (0.5-1.25m), social
space (1.25-3.5m), and public space (over 3.5m). (Wrightsman etl.
1988:284)
5. paralanguage: sound, pitch, tempo of speech, turn-taking, silence.
(ii) Its features:
1. It’s communication in which words or speech sounds are not used.
2. It conveys meaning.
3. It involves such non-verbal dimensions 规模 as facial expressions,
touch, time, gestures, smile, eye behaviors, smell, intonation 声调, etc.
4. It’s a discipline studying non-verbal behavior in communication.
5. It’s first of all used to convey messages to and receive messages from
others.
6. It’s a process of communication by means of non-verbal behaviors.
7. It may convey messages alone or in combination with verbal
behaviors.
8. It occurs in a given context or situation and is interpreted in relation to
that situation or context.(e.g. blush: nervous or shy; biting one’s nails)
(iii) Its significance
Nonverbal behavior is a significant area of communication study for at least
three reasons.
 Nonverbal behavior accounts for 占比重 much of the meaning we get
from conversations.
 Nonverbal
behavior
spontaneously
自 发 地
reflects
the
subconsciousness 潜意识. They are relatively free of distortions 扭曲失
真 and deception.
 We cannot avoid communicating through nonverbal signals.
Besides, nonverbal behavior is significant because nonverbal communication
can be open to many interpretations.
(iv) Its functions (p 218-221):
1. Repeating: People use nonverbal communication to repeat, clarify, and
emphasize their point of view. For example, nod as saying "yes". (The
gestures and words have a similar meaning and reinforce 加强 one
another.)
2. Complementing: Nonverbal communication cues 提示 can add to or
complement a verbal message. For example, scratch 抓 head, pat 轻拍
one on the shoulder while saying to him/her. (modify verbal
communication by loudness and tone of voice).
3. Substituting 取代: Nonverbal messages may substitute verbal ones in
certain settings. There are situations in which words cannot be used. In
a very noisy street, for example, police officer might use hand gestures
to replace spoken messages. (gestures replace verbal communication)
4. Regulating: Nonverbal behaviors can help control verbal interactions
语言互动 by regulating them, such as turn-taking 话轮转换 signals
(hand raised) in conversations, nod one’s head in agreement to indicate
the speaker to continue talking.
5. Contradicting: Certain nonverbal behaviors can contradict spoken
words. E.g. Saying you are relaxed and at ease with quavering voices
or shaking hands.
6. ※ Accenting 强 调 : the act of giving special importance or
significance to something.
(v) Gender and Nonverbal Communication
Read the article “Gender and Nonverbal Communication”. Are men and
women expected to behave exactly in the same manner even in the same
culture?
We have to say that there are the so-called 所谓的 gender script in every
culture. The nonverbal behaviors that result from this socialization are
learned rather than innate 先天的, and they become part of an individual’s
experience as a “gendered self”. For instance, to sit like a lady, not to cry
to be a man, etc.
1. Touch, like physical closeness 亲密, may be considered an expression
of affection, support, or sexual attraction. For instance, in some cultures,
it may be all right for women friends and relatives to walk arm-in-arm,
dance together, and hug one another, but if men do so, they may be
frowned upon 皱眉不赞同, for they would be considered homosexual
同性恋. On the other hand, touch may be used to express and maintain
an asymmetrical 非对称的 relationship as well as a reciprocal 互惠
one. For example, the doctor and the patient; the department head and
the secretary. In this case, the former are usually male-oriented.
2. The height and power differential between the sexes: In a world in
which height equals power and women are not supposed to be more
powerful than men 女性不应比男性强大, taller women may attempt to
diminish 缩 小 themselves, to slouch 没 精 打 采 and round their
shoulders so as to retreat or to occupy as little space as possible.
3. Men and women are not usually required to have the same facial
expressions. Smile may mean different things to men and women. For
females smile functions as an expression of pleasure, pleasantness, or a
desire for approval, while males may resist any nonverbal display of
expression to others in order to appear more masculine 阳刚, because
being facially expressive is often seen as a marker of “femininity”.女性
气质
4. Through clothing and make-up, the body is more or less marked,
constituted as an appropriate, or, as the case may be, in appropriate
body for its cultural requirements. Males and females have to dress
themselves appropriately according to their cultural definitions of
masculinity and femininity.
5. It is important to remember that the notion of “appropriate” nonverbal
behavior is largely culturally determined. White, middle-class women
in the US are expected to be highly expressive emotionally. However,
African-American women are not expected in exactly the same manner.
Dominant members of a hierarchy 等级制度 are less likely to smile or
disclose 公开 their feelings nonverbally.
III. Paralanguage (p191-192, p223-224) 副语言，伴随语言
We communicate with more than the words we speak. Effective speakers use
vocal qualities to suggest different meanings from exactly the same words,
like the manner of speech, intonation.
Paralanguage / Metacommunication are the accompanying features of the
voice.
a. voice set: the context in which the speaker is speaking: the situation,
gender, mood, age, person’s culture;
b. voice qualities: volume, pitch 音高, tempo, rhythm, articulation 发音,
resonance 共鸣, nasality 鼻音, accent 重读;
c. vocalization 发声: characterizers, qualifiers, segregates 分离.
IV.
Kinesics 体姿语
Kinesics, that is commonly called as body language, is the term used for
communicating through various types of body movements including gestures,
posture, touching, and other mannerisms that may accompany or replace oral
messages.
(i) Gestures: (p192-193)
Gestures are an important component of non-verbal communication. This is
mainly a matter of how we use our hands to convey a message. The language
of the hands differs from country to country and a gesture which means one
thing in one country may well mean something quite different to those living
in another.
Gestures can be emblems 象征 or symbols (the “ok” gesture), illustrators
(police officer’s hand held up to stop traffic), or regulators (one’s face turns
red with embarrassment). Gestures are used to add emphasis or clarity to an
oral message.
① It’s me or I’m the one—touch or point to one’s nose by raised thumb.
② Come here—extending a closed hand, palm up, with only the
forefinger moving back and forth.
③ Shame on you—extending both hands, palms down, with forefingers
stretching out and one forefinger makes several brushing movements
over the back of the other forefinger.
④ Hitchhiking 搭便车旅行—moving several time a closed hand with an
outstretched thumb opinion to the intended direction. (American
method)
--walking on the same side of the road and in the same direction
as the car traffic, and extend the thumb of your roadside arm
toward the front. (European method)在车辆行驶的那边公路
上，朝车开的方向行走，同时将靠边那只手臂的拇指伸向
前方。
⑤ Kill oneself—raising one’s closed hand to one’s head with the
forefinger 食指 and the thumb stretching out and the forefinger
pointing to the temple 太阳穴.
⑥ I’m full—an open hand, palm down, raised to ones throat
⑦ Good luck—crossing one’s forefinger and middle finger.
⑧ Stamping one’s foot 跺脚—impatience.
⑨ Thumbing one’s nose (one thumb on the tip of one’s own nose with
other fingers curled and moving together)—defiance 蔑 视 and
contempt.
⑩ Wagging 摆动 one’s forefinger (the forefinger of one hand is raised
and
wagged
from
side
to
side
while
other
fingers
are
lapsed)—warning.
※ crossing the heart, like crossing the fingers, provides protection against
bad luck by invoking the power of the holy object; at the same time, it
invokes the savior on the cross as a witness that the speaker’s pledge is
in earnest.
Homework: Please finish the matching task (p200)
1) bdac; 2) cadb; 3) cdab; 4) cadb; 5) bcda; 6) cadb; 7) bdca; 8) cabd;
(ii) Posture 身势语 (p211-212):
Posture, the way someone stands, sits, or walks, can send positive or
negative nonverbal messages. Posture can signal agreement or disagreement.
Appropriate posture is related to a person’s status in society. For example, the
manager may stand erect 竖立 when talking to subordinates 下级, but the
subordinates may drop their shoulders when talking to the manager.
English speakers’, especially Americans’ postures are more casual than
Chinese speakers’: ① sitting on a desk with both feet on another desk. ②
Putting one’s feet on the writing table in a crowded office while sitting in an
armchair. ③ Making big strides 大步 while walking. ④ Sitting on the grass
or on the carpet (but never squatting 蹲 in public).
※In western conversation, the speaker who is standing is superior to the
other who is sitting in ranks or status or ages. It is the opposite in Chinese
conversation. The junior or inferior 下级的 one should stand and show
his/her respect and subordinate to the senior or superior.
※Shrugging your shoulders: message of helplessness “I don’t know what
to say” or “I couldn’t help it”.
Who should stand and who sit?
 According to Chinese tradition, people who are sitting have right to
take charge of others: Monarch 君主 sits and officer stands; father
sits and son stands; leader sits and employee stands and so on. So the
younger give the old a seat to show respect.
 But in America and Britain, people who are in charge of others
have tendency to stand. They will make use of the height of space to
indicate the high status. People who have high status choose to sit
when they are conversing with you, which means they want to create
harmonious and equal atmosphere and lessen space. So adults will
bend down when they are talking to children.
 In Indonesia, people often bow and put the other people’s hand on
their forehead to express modesty. But Americans will not do it.
 In class:
Traditionally, Chinese teachers, rated as Confucian scholars, are the souls
of belief, knowledge and authority. Their image of power certainly ought
not to be damaged by the unserious posture. That is why some Chinese
students often complain that their American teacher is so informal in
class that he never seems to care about students’ reaction.
On the contrary, sitting on the edge of desk to give a lecture or even
putting his feet on chairs in class is welcomed in many English countries.
Consequently, in American eyes, Chinese teachers appear to be timid and
sluggish 迟钝的 or too boring in classroom. “In American culture,
teachers’ responsibility is to help students realize selves. Teachers are
students’ facilitators 促进者. Teachers’ image of power in America is far
weaker than that in China.”
(iii) Facial expressions:
1. Read over the article (p196-197) and explain the different understanding
of smiles at a stranger in these countries.
Japan: either a sexual maniac or an impolite person.
Korea: never talk or smile at strangers.
Arab: something wrong with the stranger’s clothes or others.
Vietnam: Americans are superficial for they smile too much. Nonverbal
language, like a silence, a smile, a glance, has its own meaning.
2. Read case 23 (p217). What does laugh serve in the mentioned situation?
V.
Haptics or Touch: (p198-199)
Haptics or touch refers to communicating through the use of bodily contact.
Differences in touching behavior are highly correlated with culture. People in
high contact cultures evaluate “close” as positive and good, and evaluate
“far” as negative and bad. People in low contact cultures evaluate “close” as
negative and bad, and evaluate “far” as positive and good
1. handshaking
How to shake hands when introduced or meeting together after a long
time.
2. embrace & kiss
In Thailand and Laos, it is rude for a stranger or acquaintance to touch
a child on the top of the head because the head is regarded as the home of the
spirit or soul. It is believed that a child’s spirit or soul is not strong enough to
be touched and has tendency to become ill if patted. Even placing a hand on
the back of an Asian worker’s chair is considered inappropriate. White
Muslims hug another person around the shoulders, Korea young people do
not touch the shoulders of their elders.
VI.
Artifacts or attire 打扮 and olfactics 嗅觉
1. The use of clothing and physical appearance to communicate is more
obvious. Clothing can reflect cultural heritage. Although Western business
dress has been widely adopted among other cultures, you may wish to learn
cultural distinctions in appropriate business attire. When visiting Saudi
Arabia, for example, the Saudi might wear the traditional Arabic white
flowing robe 长袍 and headcloth. 包头巾
2. The study of communication via smell is called Olfactics. A person’s smell
can have a positive or negative effect on the oral message.
VII. Oculesics or eye movements (p194-196)
The study of communications sent by the eyes is termed oculesics.
Eye contact is an important aspect of body language. One could draw up
quite rules about eye contact: to look or not to look, when to look and how
long to look, and who not to look at, etc. And these rules vary from culture to
culture.
See Case 22, then analyse the differences of eye contact between America
and Puerto Rico.
Puerto Rico
Britain
the
rule
dealing
for
those
America
who
are
波多黎各
looking
it is
with
communicating with
someone
considered
strangers is that
one another demands
straight in
disrespectful
you must avoid
eye
the eye is
无礼的 for a
staring at them
looking at the person
well thought;
child to
but at the same
could imply a number
someone to
meet the eye
time
of
fail to meet
of an adult.
avoid
contact.
things
Not
(fear,
ignoring them.
guilt…)
the eye of
someone
accusing
Staring at people is
them of
considered
something is
rude;
eye movements
in conversation
means
ordering
young children will
taken as a
be reprimanded 呵斥
sign of
by their parents if
guiltiness
of
turn
they look too long
taking
and too intensely at
another person
When conversing with English speakers, we had better prolong 延长 eye
contact with them. Look at the speaker directly in the eye while listening, and
look away intermittently 间歇的 while speaking.
Staring or gaping shows one’s curiosity or surprise in Chinese but
impoliteness or embarrassment in English. A prolonged gaze or stare in the
United States is considered rude. In other cultures such as Japan, Korea, and
Thailand, staring is also considered rude. In most cultures, men do not stare
at women. In France and Italy, however, men can stare at women in public. In
the United States, staring at a person is considered a sign of interest and may
even be interpreted as sexually suggestive.
Silence (p225-226)
Silence is a form of nonverbal communication that may be interpreted in
various ways depending upon the situation, the duration 持续的 of the
silence, and the culture. The use of silence in communication is also
important. Silence can communicate agreement, apathy 冷漠, awe 敬畏,
confusion, contemplation 沉思, disagreement, embarrassment, obligation,
regret, repressed hostility 被压抑的敌意, respect, sadness, thoughtfulness, or
any number of meanings.
VIII. Case Study: Students are required to read the cases given carefully
and try to analyse them from the viewpoint of IC.
Additional materials: What do the following postures mean?