Download CHAPTER2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE In this chapter

CHAPTER2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
In this chapter, the writer will provide some theories that are needed to support
this research in analyzing the song lyrics. The theories that the writer will explain are
about sexuality, homosexuality and queer theory. The writer uses queer theory to
analyze "We Are the Champion" by Queen, "All the Things She Said" by t.A.T.u. and
"Smalltown Boy" by Bronski Beat.
In addition, Barry (1995, p.146) mentions that there are some possibilities to
decide about lesbian (gay) text:
1. One which is written by a lesbian (if so, how we determine who is a lesbian,
especially who we take the anti-essentialist line just out-lined?).
2. One written about lesbians (which may be by a heterosexual woman or man,
and which would also come up against the problem of deciding what a
lesbian/gay person is in the non-essentialist terms).
3. One that expresses a lesbian 'vision' (which has yet to be satisfactorily
described).
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2.1.
Sexuality
Before doing the analysis about homosexuality and queer theory, it is suggested
to know and understand about sexuality first.
According to Rathus, Nevid, and Rathus (2009, p.4), "the term human sexuality
refers to the ways in which we experience and express ourselves as sexual beings".
Furthermore, they explain that "our awareness of ourselves as females or males is part of
our sexuality, as is the capacity we have for erotic experiences and responses". In other
words, sexuality is more about biological possibilities whether a person is male or
female.
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Sexuality, according to King (2009) is "all of the sexual attitudes, feelings and
behaviors associated with being hwnan" (p.l ).
Gamson & Moon (2004) in Bend!, Fleischmann, & Hofmann (2009, p.627) argue
that "sexuality is a set of social processes, which produces and organizes the structure
and expression of desire in a certain society and it is inevitably intertwined with (and
even constitutive of) social power relations".
Weeks (1995, p.l3) describes sexuality as the core of identity,
"that our sexuality is the most spontaneously natural thing about us. It is the
basis for some of our most passionate feelings and commitments. Through it, we
experience ourselves as real people; it gives us our identities, our sense of self,
as men and women, as heterosexual and homosexual, 'normal' or 'abnormal',
'natural' or 'unnatural'."
Based on quotation above, sexuality shows someone's true identity as heterosexual or
homosexual.
Moreover, he suggests that "what we define as 'sexuality'
is a historical
construction, which brings together a host of different biological and mental possibilities
- gender identity, bodily difference, reproductive capacities, needs, desires and fantasies
-which need not be linked together, and in other cultures have not been" (p.lS). In other
words, the source of sexuality is in both the body and mentality.
He continues by stressing that "sexuality is shaped by social forces and sexuality
only exists through its social forms and social organization" (p.24). Therefore, society
gives an important role in shaping sexuality.
According to Rathus, Nevid, and Rathus (2009, p.4), "our sexuality is an
essential part of ourselves, regardless of whether we engage in sexual intercourse or
sexual fantasy, or even if we lose sensation in our genitals because of injury".
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Weeks (1995, p.34) explains that "sexuality is shaped at the juncture of two
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major axes of concern: with our subjectivity - who and what we are: and with society with the future growth, well-being, health and prosperity of the population as a whole".
Later he says that "sexuality as a result has become increasingly important social and
political as well as moral issue" (p.35).
Cameron and Kulick (2003) say that sexuality is commonly used as a shorthand
term for either heterosexual or homosexual - it is an erotic preference for persons of the
other/the same sex and social identities which are based on the preference (e.g. 'gay',
'lesbian'). Furthermore, they add that "preferences and identities most commonly under
discussion when the word sexuality is used are precisely the 'minority' and 'deviant',
that is non-heterosexual, ones" (p.7).
According to Rathus, Nevid, and Rathus (2009, p.286), "sexual orientation refers
to an erotic attraction to, and interest in forming romantic relationship with, members of
one's own or the other sex".
Diamond (2003b), Savin- William & Diamond, (2000) in Rathus, Nevid, and
Rathus (2009, p.288) argue that "sexual orientation is not necessarily expressed in
sexual behavior. Many people see themselves as gay or heterosexual long before they
ever have sex with members of their own sex". Therefore, sexual orientation means
having romantic relationship and interest with same-sex people and people can know
their sexual orientation as homosexuals not always by showing or expressing it in sexual
activity or sexual behavior.
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2.2.
Homosexuality
Knowing the definition and understanding about homosexuality is important
before the writer gives theory about queer theory because queer theory is related to
homosexuality.
According to King (2009, p.233), "homosexuality is a word derived from the
Greek homo, meaning 'same' (do not confuse this with the Latin homo, meaning
'man')".
Gregersen (1982) in King (2009) says that "the term was first used by a
Hungarian physician in a pamphlet published in Germany in 1869 and was popularized
in the English language who decades later by Henry Havelock Ellis" (p.233).
Rathus, Nevid, and Rathus (2009, p.287) say that, "the term homosexuality
denotes sexual interest in members of one's own anatomic sex and applies to both men
and women".
They add that homosexual men are often called as 'gay males' and homosexual
women are often referred to as 'lesbians'. Gay males and lesbians may also be called
gay people collectively (p.287).
The opposite or antonym of homosexual is called heterosexual. King (2009,
p.233) says that "heterosexuals are often referred as 'straights"'.
According to Oxford Advanced Leamer's Dictionary (2000, p.637), heterosexual
is "a person who is sexually attracted to people of the opposite sex". In addition, aside
from homosexual and heterosexual, there is also bisexual. Bisexual is a person that
sexually attracted to both sexes which is male or female. Rathus, Nevid, and Rathus
(2009, p.292) define bisexual as "bisexual people are sexually attracted to both males
..
and females".
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Sexual identity for gays and lesbians is important. Williams and Lisa Diamond
(2000) in Rathus, Nevid, and Rathus (2009, p.311) mentions that, "the development of
sexual identity in gay males and lesbians involves four steps or features: attraction to
members of the same sex, self-labeling as gay or lesbian, sexual contact with members
of the same sex, and disclosure of one's sexual orientation to other people".
Cass (1979) in a journal written by Degges-White, Rice, & Myers (2000, p.318319) explains about six stages in theory of sexual identity formation which are identity
confusion, identity comparison, identity tolerance, identity acceptance, identity pride and
identity synthesis. Identity confusion as the first stage involves a confusion and anxiety
in the individual sexual orientation that is different from others. The second stage
(identity comparison) involves the individual's comparison with other homosexuals or
heterosexuals; the individual seeks information about gays and lesbians life and their
community. The next stage (identity tolerance) involves the individual tolerance about
his/her homosexual identity and interacts with other gays or lesbians and seeks
acceptance from them. Fourth stage (identity acceptance) involves the individual accepts
fully his/her identity as a homosexual rather than tolerate it. He or she has a sense of
feeling normal. Social rejection or acceptance of his/her sexual orientation make the
person lives in double life. The fifth stage (identity pride) involves the sexual minority
individuals divided into homosexuals and non-homosexuals, pride about their
homosexual identity, and defends homosexuals towards discrimination from society
particularly homophobia. Sexual orientation is no longer seen as the main determinant of
someone's identity but as a part (even though it is important) of the whole identity of
who the person is. Individuals consider that non-heterosexuals are same with
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heterosexuals. There is no difference between heterosexuals and homosexuals come into
sixth stage (identity synthesis).
J. Michal Bailey (1999) in Rathus, Nevid, and Rathus (2009, p.307) says that "it
must be difficult for young people to come to grips with their homosexuality in a world
where homosexual people are often scorned, mocked, mourned and feared". In other
words, it is hard for homosexuals particularly young gays or lesbians to express their
real sexuality where they have to face homophobia.
AT Ben-Ari (2001, p.l20) argues that "homophobia is a term coined by
Wienberg (1972) to characterize heterosexuals' dread of being in close quarters with
homosexuals, as well as self-hate of homosexuals themselves". Hudson & Ricketts
(1980) in AT Ben-Ari (2001, p.J20) add that "this is a pervasive social condition which
is often experienced as anger, disgust and discomfort with homosexuals and may be
demonstrated in both verbal and psychical violence against them". From the quotation
above it can be concluded that many homosexuals do not openly declare their sexual
orientation because they fear of homophobic people towards them.
According to Blumenfeld (1992), homophobia is "an intense, irrational fear of
lesbians and gays, and the hatred, disgust, and prejudice fostered by that fear".
(http://web.missouri.edu/-umcstudentlifelgbt/resources/homophobiahurtseveryone.pdf)
Barrett & MeWhirter (2002) in Boon & Alderson (2009, p.l51) "defined
homophobia as an individual's responses of fear, discomfort, anger, disgust, or aversion
toward gay men and lesbian women".
Blumenfeld (1992) mentions some examples of homophobia such as: first,
assuming about whether a person is gay or lesbian based on dress, attitudes or
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personality; second, dislike public display of affection between same-sex couples, but
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accepting display of affection between opposite-sex couples; third, thinking of a person
whether a gay or lesbian in terms of sexuality; fourth, be afraid of personal contacts with
lesbians or gays; fifth, avoid social activities that involve lesbians or gays and sixth,
making assumptions that gays and lesbians will be attracted to same gender people.
Rathus, Nevid, and Rathus (2009, p.309) say that, "homophobia is clearly the
greatest challenge to the adjustment of gay males and lesbians." Furthermore, they
mention that homophobia takes many forms, including as follows:
use of derogatory names (such as queer, faggot, and dyke)
telling disparaging 'queer jokes'
barring gay people from housing, employment, or social opportunities
taunting (verbal abuse)
gay bashing (physical, sometimes lethal, abuse)
Homophobic attitudes or behavior towards non-heterosexuals involve discrimination in
the workplace or society, rejection, harassment, homophobic jokes, homophobic
bullying or physical attacks.
Hall (2001, p.236) mentions that two terms that describes the oppression towards
homosexuals: 'homophobia' (an irrational fear of gays and lesbians) and 'heterosexism'
(a social prejudice against same-sex relationship and also social discrimination towards
homosexuals). Therefore, many homosexuals are depressed and stressed because of
social oppressions from homophobia and heterosexism.
One of the reasons people can be homophobic because they are afraid of
HIVIAIDS that is spread by homosexuals particularly gays. It is seen from Selden,
Widdowson, and Brooker (1997, p.260) "In the 1980s, it was feared that the spectre of
AIDS would unleash homophobic repression; that gay men would be marginalized, and
the right to a diversity of sexual pleasure be strictly limited".
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Rue!& Campbell (2006, p. 2167) say that "the AIDS epidemic, particularly in its
early stages became synonymous with male homosexuality, and the association was
such that the media labeled it the 'gay plague' ".
Rue!& Campbell (2006) explain three ways of AIDS stigma:
"AIDS evokes stigma, and thus, negative attitudes, in three ways: (1) it is
contracted through voluntary and disapproved behaviors - behaviors that are
already stigmatized (e.g., homosexual sex) (2) it is contagious and puts others at
risk, and (3) is incurable, meaning fatal at worst and chronic at best (Callen
1990; Herek 1999; Rosenberg 1989). (p. 2167).
Herek eta! (2005) in Rathus, Nevid, and Rathus (2009) say that "although strides
toward social acceptance of gay people have been made since Kinsey's day, the advent
ofHIV/AIDS has added fuel to the fire of homophobia".
Rathus, Nevid, and Rathus (2009) state that:
"When H1VIAIDS first appeared, it primarily struck the gay male community.
Some homophobes in the larger society believed that the epidemic was a God­
sent plague intended to punish gay people for sinful behavior. Perhaps the
epidemic serves as a pretext for some people to attack gay males, whom they
blame for spreading the disease". (p.309)
King (2009, p.235) says that homosexuals are often victims of hate crimes. In
addition, U.S. Department of Justice (1996) in King (2009, p.235) state that there are
negative responses towards homosexuals from a group of people. FBI defmes hate
crimes as "crime motivated by preformed, negative bias against persons, property, or
organizations based solely on race, religion, ethnicity/national origin, sexual orientation,
or disability".
Rathus, Nevid, and Rathus later explain that "because of the backdrop of social
condemnation and discrimination, gay males and lesbians in our culture often struggle to
terms with their sexual orientation" (p.311). Living in a homophobic environment forces
homosexuals conceal their sexual identity from people around them because they fear of
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negative reactions or responses from society and the consequences of 'coming out'.
Coming out is a process that tells people about someone's sexual orientation.
Rathus, Nevid, and Rathus (2009, p.311) state that "homosexuals usually spealc
of the process of accepting their sexual orientation as 'coming out' or 'coming out of the
closet' ".
King (2009, p.236-238) follows the Boston Women's Health Book Collective
(1984) that mentions that there are four stages to coming out process. The first stage is
admitting to one's sexual orientation, whether homosexual or bisexual. In the first stage,
many homosexuals know that they are 'different' at young age. Bell eta!(1981) in King
(2009, p.236) say that "attraction to individuals of the same sex generally occurs well
before sexual activity begins". The second stage is getting to know other homosexuals.
In the second stage, the individual seeks information about other homosexuals and
contact with them. They can replace negative perspective with positive attitudes about
themselves. This stage is easier for them to get acceptance from others. The third stage,
very difficult stage, which is declaring family or friend about one's sexual orientation. In
this stage a lot of gays and lesbians hide their sexual orientation for long periods. The
last stage is complete openness about one's sexual orientation. The individual discloses
his or her sexual orientation to the people at workplace.
For some people, coming out is a positive thing and experience. "Coming out can
create a sense of pride in one's sexual orientation and foster the ability to form
emotionally and sexually satisfying with gay male or lesbian partners" (Rathus, Nevid,
and Rathus, 2009, p.311). If they are successful in coming out, they get positive
reactions from society so that they can live as openly gay men or lesbians.
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However, coming out or coming out of the closet is not something easy to do
because the consequences of coming out itself. Bagley & D'Augelli (2000); Griffith &
Hebl (2002) in Rathus, Nevid, and Rathus (2009) state that many homosexuals remain
reluctant to expose their sexual orientation to other people, even to their close people
(family members or friends) because of risks of loss of jobs, friendships and community
standing (p.312).
Parents hope their children to be heterosexuals. They disapprove their children to
be homosexuals. If they know their children are homosexuals, the relationship between
parents and children will break. Prendergast eta!(2002) in King (2009, p. 237) say that
"many gays, lesbians, and bisexual young people end up homeless and on the streets".
Gays and lesbians have higher prevalence of stress or depression than
heterosexuals. Meyer (2003) in King (2009, p.235) says that "most of these mental
health problems can be attributed to what has been called 'minority stress' -the 'stigma,
prejudice, and discrimination that create a hostile and stressful social environment".
King (2009, p.236) also explains that declaring someone is homosexual is very
difficult because many people having negative treatments towards homosexuality.
Therefore, coming out may be a difficult process to do even to family or close friends
because homosexuals may fear or worry that other people will treat them differently
once they know about their sexual orientation. This can make non-straight people living
a 'double life'. They pretend to live as heterosexual men or women in their daily life.
Bagley & D'Augelli (2000) in Rathus, Nevid, and Rathus (2009, p.312) say that
"gay men and lesbian often anticipate negative reactions from informing family
members, including denial, anger, and rejection".
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Aveline (2006) in Rathus, Nevid, and Rathus (2009) adds that "some families are
more accepting. They may have had suspicions and prepared themselves for such news."
(p.312). Furthermore, Rathus, Nevid, and Rathus (2009) say that "other families are
initially rejecting but eventually come to at least grudging acceptance that a family
member is a gay".
From all theories above, it is concluded that gays and lesbians tend to feel that
they are different among heterosexual people. There are still a lot of homosexuals who
have to face homophobia of their sexual identity problems as homosexuals. They are
afraid to do coming out to their family members, friends or colleagues because they live
in hostile environment where homosexuality is viewed negatively by society especially
homophobic people who consider homosexuality as something abnormal, weird and
deviant. Therefore, it makes them live in "two world" and they have double identity.
2.3.
:
Queer Theory
Barry (1995, p.139) says that "lesbian and gay literary theory has emerged
prominently as a distinct field only in the 1990s".
Selden, Widdowson, & Brooker (1997, p.254) explain that:
"During the 1980s the term 'queer' was reclaimed by a new generation of
political activists involved in Queer nation and protest groups such as ActUp
and Outrage, though some lesbian and gay cultural activists and critics who
adopted the term in the 1950s and 1960s continue to use it to describe their
particular sense of marginality to both mainstream and minority cultures. In the
1990s 'Queer Theory' designates a radical rethinking of the relationship
between subjectivity, sexuality and representation".
The term queer theory was developed in 1990. "These terms date (at least in their
constitutional acceptance) from the 1990 conference on 'queer theory' at the University
..
of California, Santa Cruz" (Barry, 1995, p.143).
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Tyson (2006, p.334) explains that, "the use of the term queer can be seen as an
attempt to reappropriate the word from what has been its homophobic usage in order to
demonstrate that heterosexists shouldn't be allowed to define gay and lesbian
experience". Tyson also states that some homosexuals adopted the word 'queer' as an
inclusive category for a common political or cultural ground shared by nonheterosexuals.
Barry (1995, p.l43) says that lesbian theory is also a part of the queer theory.
Bertens (2008, p.184) explains that:
"Queer theory's point of departure is that there is no 'natural' sexuality- a status
traditionally accorded to heterosexuality - and that there is no stable relationship
between biological sexuality (which determines whether you are male or female,
to mention only the most frequent categories), gender and sexual desire".
From quotation above, it can be concluded that in queer theory all sexualities:
homosexuality or heterosexuality are not natural and identity in homosexuality is fluid
not rigid.
;,
Bend!, Fleischmann & Hofmann (2009, p.625) argue that "Queer theory is a
relatively new theoretical approach in organizational discourse that we think can
uncover power relations and normative and hierarchical processes in diversity
management discourse".
In queer theory, sexuality is a social construction rather than inborn and it is
shaped by culture. "For queer theory, our sexuality is socially constructed (rather than
inborn) to the extent that it is based on the way in which sexuality is defined by the
culture in which we live" (Tyson, 2006, p.336).
Hall (2001) says that queer theory wants to question the notion of being normal
..
and queers want to be treated equal. He says that queer theory questions assumption of
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sexual 'normality' including homosexuals (gays and lesbians) want to be treated as
'normal' (p.235).
Barry (1995, p 148) adds that queer theorists "set up an extended, metaphorical
sense of 'lesbian/gay' so that it connotes a moment of crossing a boundary, or blurring a
set of categories". Then he says that "all such 'liminal' moments mirror the moment of
self-identification as lesbian or gay, which is necessary an act of conscious resistance to
established norms and boundaries".
From all the theories above, it is concluded that queer theory argues that
homosexuality is supposed to be equal to heterosexuality. The principle is a part of
homosexuals struggles because homosexuality is considered abnormal by society and
homosexuals themselves are often treated unfairly.
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