Download Module 8: The Brain - Phoenix Military Academy

Chapter 11: Emotions

What is emotion?
Emotion = conscious feeling of pleasantness or unpleasantness; a response of the whole
organism, involving:
o Physiological arousal
o Expressive behaviors
o Conscious experience
Of all species, we seem the most emotional. Two dimensions of emotion are arousal or
intensity and valence or the positive/negative quality.
Evolutionary psychologists suggest that emotions have adaptive value.
Emotions involve the brain (amygdala, hypothalamus, frontal lobes to control and
interpret emotions), NT systems, autonomic nervous and endocrine systems. Left Hemisphere is
more closely associated with positive emotions and the RH with negative emotions.

What are the 2 main historical theories of emotion?
Early theories of emotion were psychophysiological:
Common sense suggests: stimulus  emotion  reaction
(William) James-(Karl) Lange theory = physical response precedes emotion, i.e., we react
physically (i.e., the sympathetic nervous system), then become aware of our body sensations, the
awareness is our emotional experience. The theory suggests that we can change our feelings by
changing our behavior.
Evidence for: Lack of physical feeling seems to correspond with a lack of emotion, i.e.,
spinal chord injury victims report not feeling emotions strongly (except for crying which takes
place above the neck seem to substantiate).
If we act out an emotion we aren’t feeling, it can lead to an actual experience of that
emotion. And in fact making facial expressions do in fact elicit emotions—subtly but detectably
(holding a pen in your teeth [smile] versus your mouth [frown] will subtly affect your mood).
This is also why asking people to imitate the feeling being observed is a good way to help them
empathize, because it will prompt them subtly to feel the same feeling.
(Walter) Cannon-(Philip) Bard theory = response and emotion happen simultaneously.
CB noted that the physiology of our various emotions are very similar; so how can the
same basic physiological activity lead to such varied interpretations. They believe the thalamus
simultaneously sent info to limbic system and frontal lobes. In fact the thalamus does send info
to hypothalamus and amygdala re: emotions.
Besides activities like peeling onions create a physical response similar to certain
emotions (crying), but we don’t label the experience as sadness.
Opponent-Process theory = when experiencing an emotion, an opposing emotion will
counter and lessen it. Repeated exposure to the emotion (followed by the opposing emotion)
leads to less and less intense experiences of it and stronger experiences of the opposing emotion
(i.e., getting over a fear of climbing).
Modern psychophysiological explanations stress the importance of hormone levels to
emotions. For example, high testosterone levels has been linked to aggression.

What are modern theories of emotion?
Modern theories focus on the role of cognition upon emotion.
Schachter-Singer two-factor theory = says that to experience an emotion we need both a
physical response and a cognitive label.
The basic principle of the theory is that all emotions play out in physiologically similar
ways, it’s cognition that determines what we’re feeling that is key.
Schachter and Singer conducted an experiment where they chemically arousing subjects
then exposing them to euphoric or irritated accomplice. Half the time they informed the subjects
about the effects of the drug (the C group) and half the time they didn’t). Those not informed
picked up the mood of the confederate, showing the importance of cognition.
Controlling our cognitions do in fact affect our emotions, i.e., thinking more positively
about ourselves and the world around us helps us feel better.
Arousal intensifies whatever emotion we’re feeling (so you’ll react more emotionally to
an insult if you’ve just exercised; great sex after a huge fight).
Zajonc’s theory = argues that emotion and cognition are separate.
He points out that emotional reaction sometimes are quicker than cognition, i.e., reacting
to a snake. Nervous system studies bear this out, i.e., sometimes the amygdala, which is the part
of the limbic system which controls emotions in brain reacts directly to a stimulus, bypassing the
higher levels of the brain altogether. Zajonc’s theory is consistent with evolutionary psychology
that argue that emotional responses developed before complex thought processes in animal
evolution.
Similarly, subliminally flashing an angry or happy too fast to register consciously still
affects us.
Richard Lazarus’ cognitive appraisal theory = argues that cognition is going on, albeit at
a subconscious level, even if it’s too fast for conscious awareness (otherwise how would we
know to react). CAT suggests that our emotional experience depends on interpretation. In
primary appraisal we assess potential consequences, secondary appraisal we decide what to do.
Different interpretations can lead to different emotions.
Although emotional arousal plays out in very physiologically similar ways, different
emotions do have subtle physiological differences and use different parts of the brain.
Interestingly, our right brain seems to be where we process negative emotions; the left where we
process positive. Infants with more left-brain activity seem to be more cheerful.
Since most emotions are complex, it’s important not to underestimate cognitive factors.

How does our body react physically when we’re frightened?
Our autonomic nervous system controls the physiology of emotional arousal: The
sympathetic NS arouses while the parasympathetic NS calms.
The SNS is our “fight or flight” response:
o Pupils dilate to let in more light
o Salivation and digestion are inhibited, making more blood and energy available
elsewhere
o Heart and respiration increase
o Blood sugar is dumped in the blood stream for energy
o More blood coagulants are made available
o We perspire to cool our aroused body
o Our muscles tense ready for action
o Our adrenal glands secrete stress hormones
The PNS has the reverse effects.

What is a polygraph?
Polygraph = also called a lie-detector, is a machine commonly used in attempts to detect
lies by measuring several physiological responses such as perspiration, heart rate, blood pressure
and breathing changes that accompany emotion.
The problem is that PGs measure all emotional stress (it doesn’t distinguish between
guilty lying and fearful honesty)
Research studies show PGs are inaccurate about a third of the time, more often labeling
the innocent as guilty.

What is nonverbal communication?
Much communication is nonverbal, i.e., a matter of tone, inflection, body language and
the like. Nonverbal communication is powerful: simply gazing into another’s eyes creates
attraction and affection.
Nonverbal communication is not easily hidden. Research suggests that teachers who
think they can hide their emotions from students or observers are mistaken. That said, some
people read emotions better than others. Introverts are better at reading body language;
extraverts are easier to read. Women are better readers than men. Both men and women find
each other harder to read then their own sex.
Women are also more expressive: women smile more, gesture more, have more facial
expression and talk more about emotions. Men express only anger more openly.
Why these gender differences? Regarding, emotion reading, power differential is an
important factor, i.e., those with less power are more motivated to read the nonverbal emotional
cues and read them better than those with more power.
Re: emotional expression, social environment is important, i.e., people from expressive
families or cultures are generally more emotionally expressive.
Most nonverbal communication varies from culture to culture: James Baker/Tariq Aziz
miscommunication about Iraq invasion; Nixon’s A-OK sign in Brazil meant “Let’s have sex”;
whistling at American athletes at the Olympics.
The exception is facial expressions, which seem to be innate and universal (even
primitive societies and blind children exhibit the same emotional expressions). Psychologists are
now trying to map out the minute facial topography of real and feigned emotions. Physiological
measures of emotion are also consistent across cultures.
Display rules = the cultural rules governing how and when a person may express
emotion. Amount of expression expressed differs from culture to culture (Western countries
tend to be more expressive; Asian countries less so).

*How many basic emotions are there?
Izard reports ten basic emotions: joy, interest-excitement, surprise, sadness, anger,
disgust, contempt, fear, shame and guilt. I want you to be aware of what I consider the five
primary emotions: mad, sad, glad, scared, shamed.
Paul Ekman, et al found six basic culturally universal emotions: glad, mad, sad, scared,
surprise and disgust.
Anger: Research suggests that holding in anger or other negative emotions increases the
risk of coronary heart disease. Holding in any emotion is associated with health problems and a
shorter life span. That said, research also shows that expressing anger tends to feed it, i.e., if we
speak our anger aloud, we’re more apt to solidify it. This goes against the idea that expressing
feelings is cathartic, i.e., leads to an experience of emotional release. Personally, I think the
problem isn’t the expression of anger, but holding onto our justifications of why we’re angry
(which is why clearings can make such a difference).
So, what to do? Wait, to calm down from aroused state (remember arousal intensifies
emotions). Do a clearing to get cognition working for you, not against. Drain it off through
exercising or talking it out with a friend. If appropriate, communicate your feelings and needs
clearly and assertively.
Groups who are more collectivist as opposed to individualistic generally see anger as a
threat to group harmony and interdependence.