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UNIT 7
WAR DIVIDES the NATION
1793
Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin
1820
The Missouri Compromise
1831
Nat Turner’s Rebellion
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1850
The Compromise of 1850
1860
Abraham Lincoln is elected President
1861
The Civil War begins
1863
The Emancipation Proclamation
1865
The Civil War ends
1877
Reconstruction ends
During the early 1800s the United States grew and changed. New towns sprang up across
the land. Many Americans moved west to explore and settle distant places.
Yet all was not well in the young country. Problems divided the people of the United
States. In 1861 the problems dividing Americans led to war. The war split the country in
two, with people living in the North fighting people living in the South.
The United States was not the same after this terrible war. The war brought some good
changes, but it left bitter feelings among the country's people for many years to come.
Members of the Fifty-fourth Massachusetts Volunteers attack Fort Wagner in Charleston
Harbor in 1863. See pictures pages 382 and 383.
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SET the SCENE with Literature
STONEWALL
by Jean Fritz
In towns and cities across the country, thousands of excited young men signed up to join
the army. It was 1861, and the country was at war. Northerners and Southerners alike
signed up, but not to fight on the same side. They signed up to fight each other.
Most people said that it would be a quick and easy war. It would be over, they said, after
only one or two battles. Most people also said that their side would win.
Read now about the war's first major battle, which took place near the small Virginia
town of Manassas junction, not far from Washington, D.0 Imagine Northern soldiers,
called Yankees, lining up for the first time against Southern soldiers, called Confederates
or Rebels, as crowds looked on.
As the participants gathered at Manassas, excitement mounted. At last! This was it! The
war was starting! Victory was in the air as if nothing else could possibly exist. The
Confederates, obviously outnumbered, were lined up in a defensive position beside a
small stream known as Bull Run, but if they worried, they didn't show it. Hadn't they
always believed that one rebel could beat five Yankees? As for the Yankees, they
straggled down to Manassas, stopping to pick blackberries—in no hurry, for hadn't they
been told that the Rebs would run once they saw how bold the Yanks were? Even the
civilians in Washington, high-ranking officials and their wives, were so sure of a Union
victory that they planned to picnic on the outskirts of Manassas on the Big Day. They
would drink champagne and toast the army and cry "Bravo! Bravo!" What could be nicer?
Although there had been several days of initial skirmishing, the Big Day turned out to be
Sunday, July 21st. A beautiful
This battle drum belonged to a young New York volunteer. See picture page 384.
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sunny day—perfect for a picnic. Carriages were drawn up on a hill overlooking Bull Run;
ladies rustled under parasols; gentlemen adjusted field glasses; couriers galloped up with
the latest news. Good news, all of it. Yankee advances. Confederate confusion. So it went
for the first six hours.
Yet not all the Confederates had been heard from. The Army of the Shenandoah that was
supposed to be held in the hills by the Union watchdog forces had eluded their enemy on
July 18th and had left for Manassas. At first they'd been slow. The men didn't know where
they were going or why and saw no reason to rush just because their officers told them to.
Finally General Thomas Jackson, whose brigade led the march, stopped them and read an
official statement. "Our gallant army under General Beauregardis now attacked by
overwhelming numbers," Jackson read. He asked the troops if they would not "step out
like men and make a forced march to save the country."
A battle! The men yelled their approval—a special rebel yell. . . It was a fierce sound that
a Yankee soldier once said sent a corkscrew sensation down the spine. Woh-who-ey. The
yell rose to a pitch on the who and held there, trembling and drawn out, then fell with a
thud on the ey. The men quickened their pace. Woh-who-ey. For eighteen hours they
marched until at last, having waded waist deep through the green Shenandoah River, they
dropped, exhausted. They marched and they rode a train for a few hours, and then
Men were supposed to be at least 18 years old to join the army, but some boys much
younger—like the two shown here—still signed up. Most boys were not allowed to fight
Instead they tended horses, drove wagons, or served as drummer boys. See pictures page
385.
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they marched again. But they were there now. The question was: Were they in time?
By noon on the 21st it was clear that Beauregard had positioned the major part of his army
in the wrong place. While the enemy was concentrating its forces on the left, the
Confederates were wasting their time on the right. In the general scramble to change
positions, Jackson and his brigade found themselves in the thick of the activity. Union
men were in the distance but steadily advancing; the Confederates were retreating. As one
officer passed Jackson, he shook his head. "The day is going against us," he said.
"If you think so, sir," Jackson replied, "don't say anything about it."
Jackson did not plunge forward to meet the enemy, as his men might have expected.
Looking over the field, he saw a plateau which he recognized as the best possible position
for making a stand. Here he placed his men and artillery and when the enemy fire closed
in, Jackson stood before his brigade, his blue eyes blazing, the old battle fever upon him.
Walking back and forth, indifferent to bullets, he was lifted out of himself, possessed with
a power he'd known only once before, in Mexico. He understood exactly how to get the
most out of every man and every gun and he willed victory into the day. "The fight," as
one officer put it, "was just then hot enough to make [Jackson] feel well." Shot in the hand
as he held it up, Jackson wrapped a handkerchief around the wound and went on as if
nothing had happened.
In another part of the field, General Bee, a West Point classmate of Jackson's, was
desperately trying to stop a retreat. "Look yonder!" he cried to his men. "There's Jackson
standing like a stone wall."
General Bee was killed almost as soon as he'd finished speaking, but retreating
Confederates did see how well Jackson's line was holding and gradually they began to
rally around it. The last reinforcements from Shenandoah army, which had just arrived,
were rushed to the scene. And the tide of the battle began to turn.
When the center of the Union line was in plain sight, General Beauregard ordered a
charge. Jackson relayed the order.
"Reserve your fire till they come within fifty yards," he shouted, "then fire and give them
the bayonet. And when you charge, yell like furies."
The orders were carried out precisely.
Woh-who-ey!
Woh-who-ey!
Suddenly the entire Union army was falling back, then turning around and hurrying off
the field. A huge, confused mob mixed with panic-stricken picnickers headed pell-mell
back to Washington.
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The battle was over and with it some of the innocent glory was gone. For the fields were
strewn with bodies—young men who only the day before had been laughing and making
jokes. Two thousand Confederates killed or wounded; three thousand Union men. Stopped
right in the midst of doing something. In the middle of a sentence perhaps, in mid-step, in
the act of raising a rifle, at the beginning of a smile. Struck down, blown apart as if they
weren't people. As if they weren't young. How could inexperienced men have imagined
what death would be like on a battlefield?
In one day soldiers on both sides became veterans, but of course the victors felt better than
the losers. If they could win a battle, southerners said, they could win a war.
What started out for many as an exciting adventure ended in fear, injury, and death at the
Battle of Bull Run. One Union soldier, staggering from the battlefield, told an onlooker, "I
know I'm going home. I've had enough fighting to last my lifetime." During the battle,
Private A. P. Hubbard's pocket-sized Bible saved his life, protecting him from a bullet that
ripped the book apart. See picture page 387.
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CHAPTER 13
BACKGROUND to the CONFLICT
“I appear this evening as a thief and a robber. I stole this head, these limbs, this body from
my master, and ran off with them.”
Frederick Douglass, runaway slave and abolitionist, about 1842 see picture page 388.
This photograph of Frederick Douglass, taken about 1850, is in the National Portrait
Gallery in Washington, D.C.
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LESSON 1
DIFFERENCES DIVIDE NORHT and SOUTH
Link to Our World
What might cause people living in different regions to disagree today?
Focus on the Main Idea
As you read, look for the reasons that caused people in the North and the South to
disagree during the mid-1800s.
Preview Vocabulary
cotton gin
Differences among Americans help make the United States strong. Sometimes, however,
differences come between people. In the mid-1800s differences became disagreements
between Americans living in two regions—the North and the South. These disagreements
threatened to tear the country apart.
REGIONAL DIFFERENCES
Many of the differences between the North and the South developed over time, as people
in each region found different ways of making a living. In the mid-1800s most Americans
still lived and worked on farms. For many people, however, life was changing.
In the North, factories seemed to be springing up everywhere, making all kinds of goods.
Many people were moving from farms to towns and cities, where they hoped to work in
the factories. People even came from other countries to find jobs.
Life in the South was not changing as quickly. Factories were being built and cities were
growing, yet farming remained the most common way to earn a living. The biggest farms
were huge plantations along the Coastal Plain and near the Mississippi River, where the
soil was rich and the weather was warm. Planters there raised acres and acres of cash
crops, such as cotton, rice, tobacco, and sugarcane, to sell at market.
Wealthy plantation owners were among the South's leaders. Many white Southerners
copied the ways of these planters and dreamed about owning their own plantations
someday. Yet few ever did. Most lived on small farms, where
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Even though most people still lived on farms, many in the North were moving to cities,
where they hoped to find work. This photograph of Cincinnati, Ohio, was taken in 1848.
See picture top of page 390.
In the South farming continued to be the center of life. This scene shows a cotton
plantation along the Mississippi River. See picture middle of page 390.
they raised cattle, cut lumber, and grew only enough food to feed their families.
Partly because of the differences in work opportunities between the two regions, many
more people lived in the North than in the South. By 1860 the population of the North had
grown to more than 19 million. Only 11 million people lived in the South. Of those 11
million people, nearly 4 million were Africans held as slaves.
How was the North different from the South?
THE SLAVE ECONOMY
Slavery had been a part of American life since colonial days. In many places, however,
slavery did not last. Some people thought that slavery was wrong. Others could not make
money using enslaved workers. The cost of feeding, clothing, and housing slaves was too
great.
Yet slavery continued in the South, where owners had come to depend on the work of
enslaved people. Slaves were made to work as miners, carpenters, factory workers, and
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LEARNING FROM GRAPHS Most Northerners once thought that all Southerners
owned slaves. Look at the circle graph to tell if this is true. See graph page 391.
What percent of Southerners owned no slaves at all in 1860? What percent did own
slaves?
house servants. Most, however, were taken to large plantations. There they worked in the
fields, raising cash crops for the planters to sell.
Not every white Southerner owned slaves. In fact, most did not. By 1860 only one white
Southern family in four owned slaves. Many of these families lived on small farms with
one or two slaves. Only a few wealthy slaveholders lived on large plantations with many
slaves. These planters together owned more than half the slaves in the South.
Why was slavery important in the Southern states?
“KING COTTON”
In the early years of settlement in the South, few planters grew cotton-the plant from
which soft, cool, cotton cloth is made. Cotton was in great demand. But, before it could be
sold, workers had to separate the small seeds from the white cotton fibers. This was a
slow, tiring job that took too many people too much time. Inventor Eli Whitney changed
this.
In 1793 Whitney invented a machine called the cotton gin, or engine. The cotton gin
removed the seeds from the cotton fibers much faster than workers could. This one change
in technology led to many other changes.
With the cotton gin, cotton could be cleaned and prepared for market in less time. Planters
could then sell more cotton and make more money. They sold the cotton to textile mills in
the North and in Europe.
WHO?
Eli Whitney 1765-1825
Eli Whitney taught school and studied law. He also liked to fix things. While visiting a
friend's Georgia plantation, he learned how hard it was to remove the seeds from cotton.
Whitney invented a machine that could take care of the problem. Soon so many people
wanted cotton gins that he could not make enough to keep up with the demand. Other
people began to make and sell copies of his invention. Whitney had to pay lawyers to stop
others from copying his work. This used up most of the money he made from inventing
the cotton gin.
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Turning raw cotton into cloth was a long process that led from farms and plantations to
textile mills. The steps shown here are removing the seeds and cleaning the cotton with
the cotton gin; shipping the cleaned cotton; and spinning the fibers into threads at a textile
mill. See pictures pages 392 and 393.
Worldwide demand for cotton made both Southern planters and Northern textile-mill
owners rich. It also made slavery more important than ever before. Planters needed slaves
to plant the seeds, weed the fields, pick the cotton, and run the cotton gins. "Cotton is
King," said Senator James Henry Hammond of South Carolina, "and the African must be
a slave, or there's an end of all things, and soon."
What invention helped make slavery more important than it had been?
NORTH AND SOUTH DISAGREE
By the mid-1800s some Southerners did not like the way growth was booming in the
North. As a writer for one Alabama newspaper described it,
“The North fattens and grows rich upon the South. We depend upon it for our entire
supplies. . . . The slaveholder dresses in Northern goods, rides in a Northern saddle. . . .
His land is cleared with a Northern axe, and a Yankee clock sits upon his mantel-piece;
his floor is swept by a Northern broom, and is covered with a Northern carpet . . . and he
is furnished with Northern inventions.”
Bad feelings over growth were not the worst of the troubles between the North and
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the South. Far worse was the disagreement over states' rights and slavery. Northerners and
Southerners had argued since colonial days about whether states should allow slavery.
The argument flared up again with the rapid settlement of the western frontier.
Over the years American pioneers and soldiers had pushed many of the Indian peoples off
their lands. This made it possible for more settlers to move west into territories such as
Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, and Arkansas. The settlers took with them their own ways of life.
For settlers from the North, this meant a way of life without slaves. For some settlers from
the South, however, this meant taking their enslaved workers with them.
It was not long before the question of the spread of slavery to the frontier became one of
the most argued issues in the country. Most white Northerners thought that slavery should
go no farther than where it already was—in the South. Most white Southerners believed
that slave owners had the right to take their slaves wherever they wanted, including to the
West.
The disagreement over slavery led to fierce arguments. Even so, the number of people
held as slaves in the South continued to grow. So did the number of enslaved people who
were taken west.
Why did the settlement of the western frontier bring about new arguments over
slavery?
LESSON 1 REVIEW
Check Understanding
1. Recall the Facts In what ways were the North and the South different?
2. Focus on the Main Idea What caused people living in the North and the South to
disagree during the mid-1800s?
Think Critically
3. Think More About It How did the differences between the North and the South affect
the ways of life in the two regions?
4. Cause and Effect How did the invention of the cotton gin affect Southern planters?
How did it affect Northern textile-mill owners?
5. Explore Viewpoints Divide a sheet of paper into two columns. Label one column For
and the other Against. List all the reasons you can that tell why people were for or against
the spread of slavery to the West.
Show What You Know
Art Activity Think about how the cotton gin changed life in the 1800s. Create an
advertisement for the people of that time that explains how the cotton gin affects those
who make and buy cotton and cotton products. Then present your advertisement to a
group of your classmates.
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Use Graphs to Identify Trends
See graphs page 394.
Why Is This Skill Important?
Some graphs show information that can help you see patterns of change over time. These
patterns are called trends. A graph showing the number of people living in the United
States since 1800 would show that the number has gone up steadily over the years. The
trend, then, has been for the population of the United States to increase.
Graphs can show trends that go upward, go downward, or hold steady. Some graphs show
trends that change. For example, a graph could show a downward trend for a time and
then an upward trend.
Understand the Process
Follow the numbered steps to identify the trends shown by the two graphs on this page.
The first is a line graph that shows the amount of cotton produced in the United States
from 1800 to 1860. The second is a bar graph that shows the number of people enslaved
in the United States from 1800 to 1860.
1. Look at the line graph. About how much cotton was produced in 1800? About how
much cotton was produced in 1830? About how much cotton was produced in 1860? You
can see that the amount of cotton produced from 1800 to 1860 went up. The trend, then,
was for cotton production to go up during this period of time.
2. Look at the bar graph. About how many people were enslaved in 1800? About how
many people were enslaved in 1830? About how many people were enslaved in 1860?
What trend does the bar graph show?
Think and Apply
Think about the trends shown in these graphs. Write a paragraph that describes what the
trends tell you about the connection between cotton production and slavery between 1800
and 1860.
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LESSON 2
AFRICANS IN SLAVERY and FREEDOM
Link to Our World
In what ways do people today protest against unfair treatment?
Focus on the Main Idea
As you read, look for ways enslaved people protested against being held in slavery.
Preview Vocabulary
slave code
overseer
spiritual
resist
Underground Railroad
While many Americans argued about slavery, the number of enslaved people grew. In
1800 there were nearly 900,000 slaves. By 1860 there were nearly 4 million. Some
Africans—both in the North and in the South—were free. Yet they did not have the rights
of full citizenship. Despite the hardships, most Africans found ways to survive. Some also
found ways to fight back.
LIFE UNDER SLAVERY
Most Southern states had laws that shaped the day-to-day lives of enslaved people. These
laws were called slave codes. Under these codes slaves were not allowed to leave their
owners' land. They were not allowed to meet in groups or to buy or sell goods. Most were
not allowed to learn to read and write. They were treated as property—as objects that
could be bought and sold.
Some slave owners hired people called overseers to watch the slaves as they worked
and to whip them if they fell behind. Slave owners broke up families by selling husbands
without their wives, and children without their parents. They punished enslaved people
harshly, sometimes with death.
"No day ever dawns for the slave, nor is it looked for," one African of the time wrote.
"For the slave it is all night—all night, forever."
To help themselves survive, many enslaved people formed close-knit communities.
Families, friends, and neighbors helped one another, giving comfort and support. They
Many slaves had to wear identification badges sewn to their clothing. See picture page
395.
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Enslaved people were sold, usually one at a time, at auctions. Families were often
separated because relatives could be bought by different slave owners. See picture page
396.
talked of what they remembered about Africa or what they had heard about it from others.
They tried to keep their traditions alive.
Religious beliefs gave many enslaved people the strength they needed to handle the
miseries of life under slavery. Some slaves expressed their beliefs by singing spirituals.
Spirituals (SPIR•ih•chuh•wuhlz) are religious songs based on Bible stories. One
spiritual told the deepest feelings of those who were enslaved.
“If I had my way,
If I had my way,
If I had my way,
I'd tear this building down.”
How did people in slave communities help one another?
FIGHTING BACK
Most slaves did whatever they could to resist, or act against, slavery. Some resisted in
quiet ways, secretly damaging the plantation.
They broke tools, making the damage look like an accident. They left gates open so that
farm animals could escape. They let boats drift away. They hid household goods. Such
actions were dangerous, and slaves had to be very careful to escape punishment. Some
acted as if they did not understand what they had been told. They said they were sorry and
would try to do better. "Got one mind for the boss to see," one slave song went. "Got
another mind for what I know is me."
Other slaves chose a more violent way to resist—they rebelled. One rebellion took place
in Southampton County, Virginia, on a hot August night in 1831. A slave named Nat
Turner led an attack that killed 57 people, among them Turner's owner and the owner's
family. Slave owners trying to end the rebellion killed more than 100 slaves. Turner and
the other leaders were caught, put on trial, and hanged.
Despite the dangers, the rebellions went on. On the night of October 16, 1859, a white
abolitionist named John Brown and a group
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of followers seized a government storehouse in Harpers Ferry, in what is now West
Virginia. The storehouse was filled with guns. Brown planned to give the guns to slaves
so they could fight for their freedom. Like Turner, Brown was caught, put on trial, and
hanged.
Such rebellions frightened many white Southerners. As one visitor to the South reported,
"I have known times here when not a single planter had a calm night's rest. They never lie
down to sleep without . . . loaded pistols at their sides."
In what ways did enslaved people resist slavery?
RUNNING AWAY
Over the years thousands of slaves chose another way to resist slavery. They tried to gain
their freedom by running away.
Some slaves ran away alone. Others tried to escape with their families or friends. Some
planned their escape carefully, slowly gathering what they would need. Others saw a
sudden chance and decided quickly—they ran.
Once away from their owners' land, runaways had to find safe places to hide. Many were
helped along the way by other slaves. Some were taken in by Indian peoples.
Others hid in forests, swamps, or mountains—sometimes for years.
"Father got beat up so much that after a while he ran away and lived in the woods," one
former slave from Virginia remembered. "Mama used to send John, my oldest brother, out
to the woods with food for Father. . . . Father wasn't the only one hiding in the woods.
There was his cousin, Gabriel, that was hiding and a man named Charlie."
Some runaways stayed in hiding, but others went on with their journey until they reached
free land in the Northern states or in Canada or Mexico. They traveled for weeks or
months, some guided only by the North Star. Others found helping hands to lead the
way—the brave men and women of the Underground Railroad.
Slave owners often sent out posters (above) offering rewards for the return of runaway
slaves. This painting by Eastman Johnson (left) shows one family's escape. The painting
is called A Ride for Liberty—The Fugitive Slaves. See picture page 397.
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The Underground Railroad was not under the ground, and it was not a real railroad. The
Underground Railroad was a system of escape routes leading to free land. Most routes
led from the South to the Northern states and to Canada. Some led to Mexico and the
Caribbean.
Members of the Underground Railroad were called conductors. Working at night, the
conductors led runaways from one hiding place to the next along the routes. These hiding
places—barns, attics, secret rooms—were called stations. There the runaway slaves could
rest and eat, preparing for the next night's journey to the next station on the route.
Harriet Tubman, who had escaped from slavery herself, was one of the best-known
conductors of the Underground Railroad. During the 1850s Tubman returned to the South
19 times and guided about 300 people to freedom. She proudly claimed, "I never lost a
single passenger."
How did the Underground Railroad help slaves escape?
Among those Harriet Tubman (below) led to freedom were her mother and father, her
sister, and her two children. See picture page 398.
MOVEMENT This map of the Underground Railroad shows the major routes if leading
to free land. To what places did the routes leading north go? To what places did the routes
leading south go? See map page 398.
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LEARNING FROM GRAPHS This graph shows the numbers of free and enslaved
Africans in the United States from 1800 to 1860. What trends does the graph show? See
graph page 399.
FREE AFRICANS
Not all Africans of the time were enslaved. By 1860 nearly 500,000 free Africans lived in
the United States. A few were members of families that had been free since colonial
times, or at least since the American Revolution. Some were former slaves who had been
freed by their owners. Others had bought their freedom or had become free by running
away.
Many free Africans lived in cities, where they had a better chance of finding a job. They
worked in many different professions. Some were carpenters, tailors, blacksmiths, and
shopkeepers. Others became ministers, doctors, nurses, and teachers.
Some free Africans became quite wealthy. Jehu Jones, for example, owned one of South
Carolina's best hotels. James Forten ran a busy sail factory in Philadelphia, where many
ships were built. Thorny Lafon made a fortune from his businesses in New Orleans.
For most Africans, however, life was very hard no matter where they lived. They were
unwelcome in many places and often were attacked. State laws in both the North and the
South gave them little freedom. Most were not allowed to vote or to meet in groups. They
could not attend certain schools or hold certain jobs. Some free Africans were wrongly
called runaway slaves. Others were taken and sold into slavery. The danger of losing the
little freedom they had was very real.
What was life like for most free Africans in the early 1800s?
LESSON 2 REVIEW
Check Understanding
1. Recall the Facts What was the Underground Railroad?
2. Focus on the Main Idea In what ways did enslaved people act against slavery?
Think Critically
3. Personally Speaking Why do you think many enslaved people were willing to risk
their lives to resist slavery?
4. Past to Present In what ways do people today protest if they are denied freedom?
Show What You Know
Poster Activity Chains are a symbol of slavery. Think about some symbols of freedom.
Look through magazines and newspapers for pictures that express the meaning of
freedom. Cut out the pictures, and use them to create a poster that shows the idea of
freedom. Add your poster to a class display titled Freedom.
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LESSON 3
FACING A NATIONAL PROBLEM
Link to Our World
In what ways do people today try to settle disagreements?
Focus on the Main Idea
Read to learn about the ways Northerners and Southerners tried to settle their
disagreements during the early 1800s.
Preview Vocabulary
free state
slave state
Because of his work to help settle the differences between the North and the South, Henry
Clay became known as the Great Compromiser. See picture page 400.
As time passed, more and more Northerners wanted an end to slavery, while more and
more slave owners grew angry and bitter. Americans began to understand that slavery was
not just a problem between the people of two regions. It had become a problem for the
whole country.
NEW COMPROMISES
One leader who worked hard to help settle the differences dividing the country was Henry
Clay of Kentucky. As a member of Congress, Clay often found himself in the middle of
heated arguments about slavery.
The worst arguments broke out over the spread of slavery to the West. Each time groups
of settlers asked to join the Union as a new state, the same question arose. Would the new
state be a free state or a slave state? A free state did not allow slavery. A slave state
did. For a time there were as many free states as slave states. This kept a balance between
the North and the South. Then, in 1819, settlers in the Missouri Territory, a part of the
Louisiana Purchase, asked to join the Union as a slave state. If this happened, slave states
would outnumber free states.
The Missouri question became a heated debate that dragged on for months. Henry Clay
worked day and night to help solve the problem. Clay himself owned slaves. But he did
not want to see the question of slavery tear the country apart. Finally, in 1820, he
persuaded Congress to agree to a compromise—the Missouri Compromise.
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REGIONS The Missouri Compromise line divided lands that could join the Union as free
states from lands that could join as slave states. Which two states were admitted to the
Union as part of the compromise? Were they admitted as free states or as slave states? See
map page 401.
Under this plan Missouri would be allowed to join the Union as a slave state. Maine
would join as a free state. This would keep the balance between free states and slave
states. Then an imaginary line would be drawn through the rest of the lands gained in the
Louisiana Purchase. Slavery would be allowed south of the line. Places north of the line
would be free.
The Missouri Compromise kept the peace for nearly 30 years. During this time six new
states joined the Union, but the number of free states and slave states remained equal.
Then, in 1848, the United States gained new lands after winning the war with Mexico.
Settlers in California, a part of these new lands, soon asked to join the Union as a free
state.
Henry Clay once again found himself in the middle of an argument in Congress over
slavery. Once again he worked toward a compromise. This plan became known as the
Compromise of 1850.
Under this compromise California joined the Union as a free state. The rest of the lands
won from Mexico were divided into two territories—New Mexico and Utah. The people
there would decide for their territory whether or not to allow slavery.
The Compromise of 1850 also had a new law dealing with runaway slaves. Under the
Fugitive Slave Law, anyone caught helping slaves to escape would be punished. People
who found runaway slaves—even runaways who had reached the North—had to return
them to the South.
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Henry Clay, who became known as the Great Compromiser, died in 1852. He never gave
up hope that the country would find a peaceful way to settle its differences. On a marker
by his grave in Lexington, Kentucky, are the words I know no North—no South—no
East—no West.
What two compromises on the spread of slavery did Congress reach?
HOPES FOR PEACE FADE
Even with the compromises, bad feelings grew between the North and the South. In 1854
harsh words turned to violence.
The problem began when Congress passed a new law called the Kansas-Nebraska Act.
This law changed the rules of the Missouri Compromise. Under the compromise, slavery
would not have been allowed in the territories of Kansas and Nebraska. Under the KansasNebraska Act, people living in those lands were now given the chance to decide for
themselves whether to allow slavery. They would decide by voting.
Kansas quickly became the center of attention. People for and against slavery rushed into
the territory, hoping to help decide the vote. It was not long before fighting broke out
between the two sides. More than 200 people were killed in what came to be known as
Bleeding Kansas.
While fighting went on in Kansas, those against slavery suffered another defeat. In 1857
the Supreme Court decided the case of an enslaved African named Dred Scott. Scott had
asked the Court for his freedom. The Court said no.
Scott argued that he should be free because he had once lived on free land. Scott's owner
had often moved from place to place. When he moved, Scott went with him. For a time
they lived in Illinois, a free state. Then they lived in the Wisconsin Territory, a free
territory under the Missouri Compromise.
After Scott's owner died, Scott took his case to court. The case moved from judge to judge
until it landed in the Supreme Court. There Scott lost his fight for freedom. Chief Justice
Roger B. Taney (TAW•nee) said that Scott had "none of the rights and privileges" of
American citizens. He was a slave, Taney said. Living on free land did not change that.
Taney had more to say. He declared that Congress had no right to outlaw slavery in the
Wisconsin Territory to begin with. The Constitution protects people's right to own
property. Slaves, he said, were property. The Missouri Compromise was keeping people
in some places from owning property. This, he said, went against the Constitution.
Many people had hoped that the Dred Scott decision would settle the battle over slavery
once and for all. Instead, it made the problem worse.
Why did the Supreme Court deny freedom to Dred Scott?
In 1857 the Supreme Court decided that Dred Scott (left) should not be given his freedom.
Chief Justice Roger Taney (right) spoke for the Court. See pictures page 402.
403
ABRAHAM LINCOLN WORKS FOR CHANGE
The Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Dred Scott decision caused violence and anger that
caught the attention of Americans across the country. Soon new leaders began to speak
out. One of these leaders was Abraham Lincoln.
Abraham Lincoln had grown up on the frontier in Kentucky and Indiana. Like other
pioneers, he had had a rough, hard life. He worked so many hours on the family farm that
he often could not go to school. But he borrowed books and read all he could.
When Lincoln was a young man, he moved with his family to Illinois. There he held
several jobs before serving in the state legislature. He studied law, and in time he became
a lawyer. In the late 1840s he served a term in Congress. During these years the matter of
the spread of slavery to the West became an important question.
Lincoln was against the spread of slavery. He did not think the government had the right
to end slavery everywhere in the country. But he hoped that if slavery were not allowed to
spread, it would one day die out.
Lincoln joined a new political party formed to fight the spread of slavery. This party was
called the Republican party. He even thought about running again for government office.
The Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Dred Scott decision helped him make up his mind. In
1858 Lincoln entered a race for the United States Senate. The person he ran against was
Stephen A. Douglas. Douglas had written the Kansas-Nebraska Act.
Why did Abraham Lincoln join the Republican party?
This ticket was to a fair held in 1858 where money was raised to fight slavery. See picture
page 403.
THE LINCOLN— DOUGLAS DEBATES
Few people could have been more different from each other than Lincoln and Douglas.
Abraham Lincoln was a tall, thin man from the frontier. His thick, black hair looked
uncombed. He wore plain, dark clothes that were a bit rumpled. He was not well known
around the country. In fact, few people outside of Illinois had heard of him.
Stephen Douglas was heavy and a full foot shorter than Lincoln. He was well educated
and wore fine clothes—a ruffled shirt, tailored suit, and polished boots. He was already
serving in the Senate, and Americans across the country knew of him. People called him
the Little Giant.
In one way, though, Lincoln and Douglas were very much alike. They were both powerful
public speakers. In the summer of 1858, the two men traveled around Illinois and debated
questions that were important to voters. Huge crowds turned out to listen. Everyone
wanted to hear Lincoln and Douglas debate about whether slavery should be allowed in
the West.
Stephen Douglas argued that each new state should decide the slavery question for
404
Stephen Douglas and Abraham Lincoln held seven debates in 1858. This painting shows
Lincoln (standing) and Douglas (to Lincoln's right) debating in Charleston, Illinois. See
picture page 404.
itself. That was what the country's founders had allowed, he said, and that was what the
new Kansas-Nebraska Act allowed.
Abraham Lincoln disagreed. He said that "the framers of the Constitution intended and
expected" slavery to end. The problem, Lincoln pointed out, was more than a question of
what each state wanted. It was a question of right and wrong. Slavery should not spread to
the West, he said, because slavery was wrong.” That is the real issue," Lincoln said. "That
is the issue that will continue in this country when these poor tongues of Judge Douglas
and myself shall be silent. It is the eternal struggle between these two principles—right
and wrong—throughout the world."
Stephen Douglas won the race for the Senate. But people around the country now knew
who Abraham Lincoln was.
How did Lincoln's views differ from those of Douglas?
LESSON 3 REVIEW
Check Understanding
1. Recall the Facts What events led Abraham Lincoln to speak out against slavery?
2. Focus on the Main Idea In what ways did people try to settle the disagreements
between the North and the South during the early 1800s?
Think Critically
3. Think More About It How was the Missouri Compromise changed by the KansasNebraska Act and the Dred Scott decision?
4. Past to Present Do you think it is still important for leaders today to hold debates
before elections? Explain your answer.
Show What You Know
Simulation Activity Imagine that you have been asked to interview Henry Clay, Dred
Scott, Stephen Douglas, or Abraham Lincoln. Write the questions you would ask and the
answers the person might give. Present your interview to the class.
405
LESSON 4
A TIME FOR HARD DECISIONS
Link to Our World
When must people today make difficult decisions in their lives?
Focus on the Main Idea
Read to learn about the difficult decisions Americans had to make in 1860 and 1861.
Preview Vocabulary
Confederacy
In 1860 Americans prepared to choose a new President. They listened to speeches. They
read newspapers. They watched parades. They also worried. Anger and bitterness were
driving the North and the South further apart than ever. Could a new President hold the
country together?
THE ELECTION OF 1860
The question of the spread of slavery to the West seemed to be all that people talked about
during the election of 1860. Stephen Douglas ran as a member of the Democratic party.
He argued that western settlers should decide for themselves whether to allow slavery.
However, many Democrats in the South backed another leader—John Breckinridge of
Kentucky. Breckinridge thought that the government should allow slavery everywhere in
the West.
Abraham Lincoln ran as a member of the Republican party. He spoke out strongly against
the spread of slavery. He promised not to stop slavery in the South, where it was already
practiced. But he said that he hoped it would one day end there, too.
Many white Southerners worried about what would happen if Lincoln became President.
They thought that the problem was far greater than the question of slavery. They believed
that their whole way of life was being attacked. Some said that their states would secede
from the Union if Lincoln was elected.
A supporter of Stephen Douglas wore this campaign button during the election of 1860.
How do people today show their support for leaders running for office? See picture page
405.
406
On election day, November 6, 1860, Lincoln won the Presidency. Southern leaders did not
wait long before carrying out their threat. On December 20, South Carolina's leaders
declared that "the United States of America is hereby dissolved." With these words the
state seceded from the Union.
Six other states—Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas—soon
followed South Carolina's example.
Together these seven states formed a new country. They called the new country the
Confederate States of America, or the Confederacy (kuhn•FEH•duh•ruh•see).
They elected a Mississippi senator, Jefferson Davis, as president. The United States was
now split in two.
What did seven Southern states decide to do after Lincoln was elected President?
FORT SUMTER
Lincoln had little time to celebrate winning the election. He wanted to save the Union—to
keep the country together. Yet seven states had said that they were no longer part of the
Union. What would he do about those states? Some people told Lincoln to let the
Southern states go. Others said that he should give in on the slavery question and hope
that the Southern states would return. Still others felt that Lincoln should use the army to
end the revolt.
Lincoln thought a great deal about his choices. He hoped to prevent a war. "We are not
enemies, but friends," Lincoln told Southerners after taking the oath of office as President
on March 4, 1861. "We must not be enemies." The very next day, however, Lincoln
received an important message. When he read it, he knew that time was running out. The
message was from Major Robert Anderson. Anderson was the commander of Fort Sumter.
When the Southern states had seceded, they had taken over post offices, forts, and other
federal government property. Fort Sumter, which was located on an island off the coast of
South Carolina, near Charleston,
This poster (above) urged people to vote for Lincoln and his running mate, Hannibal
Hamlin. The gold ax (right) was a campaign pin. The ax reminded people of Lincoln's
early years splitting logs on the frontier. The "WIDE AWAKE" on the handle meant that
Lincoln's supporters were "wide awake" to dangers to the Union. See picture page 406.
407
was one of the few forts in the South that remained in Union hands. The message from
Major Anderson said that supplies at the fort were almost gone. If new supplies were not
sent soon, Anderson would have to surrender the fort to the Confederacy.
Lincoln knew that he had an important decision to make. His goal was to keep Fort
Sumter under Union control. But several problems stood in the way. The most important
problem was that the fort was running out of supplies.
Lincoln thought carefully about his choices. Each had its own possible consequence. He
could send supplies to the fort. If he did, the Southerners might attack. He could send
troops to the fort. If he did, the Southerners would surely attack. He could choose to do
nothing at all. By doing nothing, he would really be giving the fort to the Confederacy
because Major Anderson would have to surrender.
Finally, Lincoln made the choice he thought was the best. He said that he would send
supply ships to the fort. Then he waited to see what would happen.
WHERE?
Fort Sumter
Fort Sumter was one of several forts built to protect American coastlines following the
War of 1812. Building the fort was a long, difficult job. Workers first had to build the
island on which the fort would stand. Then they built the fort itself, with walls 5 feet (1.5
m) thick and nearly 50 feet (15.2 m) high. Today Fort Sumter is part of the national park
system. See map page 407.
The Confederate flag flew over Fort Sumter after the Union surrender. See picture page
407.
408
THE UNION BREAKS APART
November 1860 Lincoln is elected President
December 1860 South Carolina secedes
January 1861 Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, and Louisiana secede
February 1861 Texas secedes
March 1861 Lincoln is inaugurated President
April 1861 Southern troops attack Fort Sumter
Virginia secedes
May 1861 Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina secede
LEARNING FROM TIME LINES This time line shows when each of 11 Southern
states seceded from the Union. Which state was the first to secede from the Union? Which
states were the last to secede?
Now Confederate president Jefferson Davis had to make a decision. His goal was to take
control of Fort Sumter for the Confederacy. His problem was that Union troops held the
fort. Lincoln was now sending supplies to help those troops.
Like Lincoln, Davis thought carefully about his choices and their possible consequences.
Then he made what he thought was the best choice, even though he knew that one
possible result was war. Davis decided to attack the fort before the supply ships arrived.
On April 12, 1861, Confederate soldiers fired on Fort Sumter. The next day Major
Anderson ran out of ammunition and had to give up.
Davis had met his goal. Lincoln had not. Lincoln quickly called for Americans to join an
army to stop the rebellion. Fearing that Northern armies would march into the South, the
states of Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina joined the seven already in
the Confederacy. Now the country was even more divided. The Civil War had begun.
What did Davis decide to do when Lincoln said he would send supplies to Fort
Sumter?
LESSON 4 REVIEW
Check Understanding
1. Recall the Facts What event led South Carolina's leaders to secede from the Union?
2. Focus on the Main Idea What difficult decisions did Americans make in 1860 and
1861?
Think Critically
3. Think More About It Why was Fort Sumter important to both Abraham Lincoln and
Jefferson Davis?
4. Personally Speaking Do you think Lincoln made the right decision when he decided to
send supplies to Fort Sumter? Explain your answer.
Show What You Know
Writing Activity The attack on Fort Sumter marked the beginning of the Civil War.
Write two headlines that could have appeared in newspapers in the days following the
attack. The first should be a headline for a newspaper in the North. The second should be
a headline for a newspaper in the South. Present the headlines to your classmates.
409
Make a Thoughtful Decision
Why Is This Skill Important?
Did you have to make a decision today? Did you have to decide whether to go somewhere
with your friends? Did you have to decide how to settle a disagreement with someone?
You make many decisions every day. Some decisions are easy. Other decisions are more
difficult. The difficult ones may require more thought because your choices may have
lasting consequences.
Remember What You Have Read
You have read about the difficult decisions Abraham Lincoln and Jefferson Davis had to
make as supplies ran out at Fort Sumter in South Carolina. The ways in which these
leaders came to their decisions show how a thoughtful decision can be made. Think again
about what happened.
1. What goal did each leader have?
2. What steps did each leader follow in making a decision?
3. What choice did each leader make?
4. What were the consequences of Lincoln's choice? of Davis's choice?
Understand the Process
You can use similar steps to help make a thoughtful decision.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Identify your goal.
Think about problems that may keep you from reaching your goal.
Identify actions you could take to reach your goal.
Think about the possible consequences of each action.
List your choices for action. Begin with those that might have the best results, and
end with those that might have the worst results.
Make the choice that seems best.
Put your choice into action.
Think about whether your choice helped you reach your goal.
Think and Apply
Think about a decision you made at school. What steps did you follow? What choice did
you make? What were the consequences? Do you think you made a thoughtful decision?
Explain.
410
COUNTERPOINTS
UNION OR SECESSION?
The Union flag as it looked in 1861 See picture left side page 410.
An early Confederate flag See picture right side page 410.
At the news of Abraham Lincoln's election as President, Americans in both the North and
the South got ready for what some called the Revolution of 1860. Some hoped that the
South would not carry out its threat to secede. Lincoln himself said, "The people of the
South have too much sense to attempt the ruin of the government." But he and others did
not understand how badly many Southerners wanted their independence. As one
Southerner put it, "You might as well attempt to control a tornado as to attempt to stop
them."
411
Not all Southerners agreed about seceding. Some were against it. Others thought that the
South should first give Lincoln a chance. They would be willing to secede only if nothing
else worked. Still others wanted to secede right away. "The time for compromise,"
Jefferson Davis said, "has now passed."
Two Southerners who made their feelings clear were Edmund Ruffin of Virginia and Sam
Houston, the governor of Texas. The words of the two men, quoted in 1861, show how
they felt about secession, or seceding from the Union.
“I will be out of Virginia before Lincoln's inauguration, and so . . . avoid being, as a
Virginian, under his government even for an hour. I, at least, will become a citizen of the
seceded Confederate States, and will not again reside in my native state, nor enter it
except to make visits to my children, until Virginia shall also secede. . . . This result . . .
cannot be delayed long.
The bloodshed of South Carolinians defending their soil and their rights, or maintaining
the possession of their harbor . . . will stir doubly fast the sluggish blood of the more
backward Southern States into secession.”
“Let me tell you what is coming. . . . Your fathers and husbands, your sons and brothers,
will be herded at the point of the bayonet. . . . You may, after the sacrifice of countless
millions of treasure and hundreds of thousands of lives, as a bare possibility, win Southern
independence. . . . But I doubt it. I tell you that, while I believe with you in the doctrine of
States' Rights, the North is determined to preserve this Union. They are not a fiery,
impulsive people as you are, for they live in colder climates. But when they begin to move
in a given direction . . . they move with the steady momentum and perseverance of a
mighty avalanche.”
COMPARE VIEWPOINTS
1. What viewpoint about seceding did Ruffin hold? How do you know?
2. What viewpoint about seceding did Houston hold? How do you know?
3. What other viewpoints might Southerners have held on the matter of secession?
Governor Thomas H. Hicks of Maryland said, "The only safety of Maryland lies in
preserving a neutral position between our brethren of the North and of the South." What
view did the governor hold?
THINK AND APPLY
You have read that three Southerners—Ruffin, Houston, and Hicks—each had a different
view about secession. At what other times in history have people from the same region
held different views about something?
412
CHAPTER 13 REVIEW
CONNECT MAIN IDEAS
Use this organizer to show that you understand how the chapter's main ideas are
connected. First copy the organizer onto a separate sheet of paper. Then complete it by
writing three details to support each main idea. See organizer page 412.
WRITE MORE ABOUT IT
1. Write a Persuasive Letter Imagine that you are an abolitionist trying to get new
stations for the Underground Railroad. Write a letter in which you try to persuade a friend
to allow his or her home to become a station. Describe the dangers your friend might face.
2. Write a Report Write a short report about what Henry Clay did to keep the country
from being torn apart over the question of slavery.
3. Write Your Opinion Tell whether you think agreeing to a compromise is always a
good way to settle differences. Explain.
4. Summarize Viewpoints Write a paragraph that summarizes Stephen Douglas's point of
view about how the slavery question should be settled. Then write another paragraph that
summarizes Abraham Lincoln's point of view on the same issue.
413
USE VOCABULARY
For each pair of terms, write a sentence or two that explain how the terms are related.
1. slave code, overseer
2. resist, spiritual
3. free state, slave state
CHECK UNDERSTANDING
1. How was life in the North changing in the mid-1800s?
2. Why did Southern planters feel they needed enslaved workers?
3. How did the invention of the cotton gin affect cotton production?
4. What kinds of laws affected the everyday lives of slaves?
5. Why was the North Star important to some runaway slaves?
6. What role did religion play in the lives of many enslaved people?
7. How did the settlement of the West add to the argument over slavery?
8. How did the Compromise of 1850 help satisfy the demands of slaveholders?
9. Why did the Kansas-Nebraska Act lead to fighting?
10. What major decisions led to the start of the Civil War?
THINK CRITICALLY
1. Past to Present How do some people today protest against the things they feel are
unfair? How are those ways similar to the ones used by enslaved people before the Civil
War? How are they different?
2. Personally Speaking What kind of person do you think a conductor on the
Underground Railroad needed to be?
3. Cause and Effect Why did compromises fail to settle disagreements over the issue of
slavery?
4. Explore Viewpoints Why did Chief Justio Roger Taney believe that Dred Scott should
not be given his freedom?
5. Think More About It How did the Lincoln-Douglas debates affect Lincoln's political
career?
APPLY SKILLS
How to Use Graphs to Identify Trends
Look in newspapers or magazines for a bar graph : or a line graph that shows a trend. Cut
out the graph and tape it to a sheet of paper. Below the graph, identify the trend shown.
How does the trend change over time?
How to Make a Thoughtful Decision
Imagine that a friend has asked you to allow your home to be used as a station on the
Underground Railroad. What steps might you follow to come to a decision?
READ MORE ABOUT IT
Many Thousand Gone: African Americans from Slavery to Freedom by Virginia
Hamilton. Knopf. This nonfiction book tells the history of slavery through the stories of
those who experienced it.
A Nation Torn: The Story of How the Civil War Began by Delia Ray. Lodestar. The author
uses primary source materials to help explore the events leading to the Civil War.
Who Comes with Cannons? by Patricia Beatty. Morrow. Twelve-year-old Truth becomes
involved with the Underground Railroad when she goes to live with her uncle's family in
North Carolina.