Download Semester I

Semester I
Introduction to Environmental Science
Humans and the Environment
I.
Class introduction and review of syllabus
A. Define Environmental Science
B. Differentiate between environmental science, environmental
studies, and ecology
C. Sustainability
D. Human population issues
E. Hot issues
1. Endocrine Disorders
2. Declining fisheries
3. Declining bird populations
4. Re-introduction of native species
5. Invasive species
6. Ozone depletion
7. Global warming
8. Deforestation
F. Ethics, values, and world views
Using Science to Address Environmental Problems
I. Solving environmental problems
A. The Scientific Method
B. Inductive vs deductive reasoning
C. Variables and experimental controls
D. Theories, principles, and laws
II. Health effects of environmental pollutants
A. Risk, risk assessment, and risk management
B. Toxicology
1. Lethal dose (LD50%)
2. Effective dose (ED50%)
3. Dose-response curve
C. Carcinogens and chemical mixtures
III. Ecological risk assessment
A. The precautionary principal
B. Ecological risk assessment
1. Environmental sensors
2. Cost-benefit analysis
C. Overview of problem resolution
IV. Environmental Problems
A. Case Study Lake Washington
B. The Salton Sea
C. Application of the “Tragedy of the Commons”
Environmental History, Legislation and Economics
I. A historical perspective of the environmental movement in the USA
A. Conservation
B. Colonial times through the early 1800s
C. Mid 1800s through the early 1900s
1. John James Audubon
2. Henry David Thoreau
3. George Perkins Marsh
4. Theodore Roosevelt
5. John Muir
D. Mid-1900s through present
1. Franklin Roosevelt
2. Aldo Leopold
3. Rachel Carson
4. Gaylord Nelson
I.
How much pollution is acceptable?
A. Economics of the environment
1. Costs, cost estimates, and the “optimum” amount of
pollution.
2. Economic strategies for pollution control
II.
Environmental Policy
A. Environmental policy in the USA
1. EPA: establishment of policies
2. Case study: old growth forests - Pacific Northwest
Ecosystems and Energy
I.
Introduction to ecology
A. Heirarchy: population, community, ecosystem, biosphere
II.
Energy
A. Laws of thermodynamics and their applications to living
systems
B. Photosynthesis
1. Chemical Equations
2. Relationship to basis laws of thermodynamics
Food Chains and food webs
A. Energy flow through ecosystems
B. Ecological pyramids, biomass and energy
C. Primary Productivity
1. Gross primary productivity
2. Net primary productivity
D. Human impact on food webs
1. Commercial fishing practices
2. Impact of management practices
3. Human appropriation of NPP
III.
Ecosystems and living Organisms
I.
II.
Community structure and composition
A. Natural Selection, populations, and community structure
B. Succession and community structure
1. What is succession?
2. Primary succession: who, where, and how long
3. Secondary succession: who, where, and how long
C. Keystone species and community structure
D. Species richness due to community structure
1. Margins and environmental stress
2. Ecosystem services
Species interactions
A. Symbiosis
III.
1. What is symbiosis
2. Mutualism
3. Commensalisms
4. Parasitism
B. Competition
C. Predator-prey interactions
1. Pursuit and ambush
2. Herbivory and plant defenses
3. Defenses and adaptation
D. Co evolution
Ecological niche
A. What is an ecological niche
B. Fundamentals vs. realized niche
1. Limiting factors
2. Competitive exclusion
3. Resource partitioning
Ecosystems and the Physical Environment
I. Biogeochemical cycles
A. Gaseous cycles
1. Carbon cycle: natural processes and human impact
A. natural processes
b. human impact and global warming
2. Nitrogen cycle: role of bacteria, natural processes, and human
impact
a. natural processes and the role of bacteria
1) nitrogen fixation
2) nitrification
3) assimilation
4) ammonification
5) denitrification
b. human impact
3. Sulfur cycle: role of bacteria, natural processes, and human
impact
4. Hydrologic cycle: natural processes and human impact
B. Sedimentary cycle
1. Phosphorus cycle: natural processes and human impact
II. Role of solar energy in global ecosystems and events
A. Earth surface temperatures
1. Latitude
2. Season
B. Wind and water flow patterns
1. Structure of the atmosphere
2. Atmospheric flow and wind patterns
3. Global ocean currents
C. Ocean and atmospheric interactions
1. ENSO
2. La Niña
D. Weather vs. climate
1. Precipitation and regional differences
2. Tornadoes vs. tropical cyclones
III. Plate tectonics and environmental impact
A. Earthquakes
B. Volcanic eruptions
Major Ecosystems of the World
I. Terrestrial biomes
A. What is a biome?
B. Representative terrestrial biomes and their defining characteristics,
both physical and biological
1. Tundra
2. Taiga or boreal forest
3. Temperate rain forest
4. Temperate deciduous forest
5. Grasslands
6. Chaparral
7. Deserts
8. Savanna
9. Tropical rain forests
C. Human impacts on biomes around the world
D. Impact of altitude and latitude on distribution and type of vegetation
present
II. Aquatic ecosystems
A. Environmental factors responsible for the structure of aquatic
ecosystems
1. Salinity
2. Light
3. Currents
4. Dissolved oxygen
B. Representative aquatic ecosystems
1. Freshwater
a. Flowing-water ecosystems
b. Standing-water ecosystems
c. Freshwater wetlands
2. Estuaries
3. Marine
a. Intertidal zone
b. Benthic environment
c. Neritic province
d. Oceanic province
C. Human impacts on aquatic ecosystems
1. The Chesapeake Bay – problems and progress
2. Coral Reefs – many sources of impact
3. The Florida Everglades – then, now, and tomorrow
A Crowded World
Understanding Population Change
I. Population ecology - the basics
A. Four factors that influence population size
1. Birth rate and death rate
2. Immigration and emigration
3. Calculation of population growth rate
B. Biotic potential and carrying capacity
1. Exponential growth and the J-shaped curve
2. Carrying capacity and logistic growth, the S-shaped curve
C. Life history strategies and survivorship curves
1. Reproductive strategies
2. Types I, II and III survivorship
D. Density-dependent and density-independent factors that influence
population size
1. Density-dependent factors include predation, competition, and
disease
2. Density-independent factors are typically random or extreme
abiotic events
II. Human population growth
A. Historical perspective and current trends
B. Differing population characteristics, highly developed and
developing countries
1. Infant mortality rate
2. Total fertility rate
3. Replacement-level fertility
4. Age structure
C. Case●in●Point: U.S. immigration policy and controversies
Facing the Problems of Overpopulation
I. The human population explosion
A. Factors related to human population growth
1. World hunger
2. Economic effects
3. Natural resources and consumption
4. Environmental impact
B. People overpopulation vs. consumption overpopulation
II. Urbanization
A. Trends in distribution: rural and urban areas
B. Urban population
1. Environmental problems
2. Environmental benefits
3. Case●in●Point: Curitiba, Brazil
III. Fertility, national policies, and control of global human population
growth
A. Fertility rates and related factors
1. Cultural values
2. Social and economic status of women
3. Availability of family planning services
B. National policies on fertility
1. China
2. India
3. Mexico
4. Nigeria
C. Control of global population growth
1. Actions for individuals
2. Actions for governments
The Search For Energy
Fossil Fuels
I. Fossil fuels: formation and use
A. What are fossil fuels and how were they formed?
B. Coal
1. Grades of coal, their characteristics and uses
2. Availability
3. Mining practices
4. Environmental impacts
a. Mining
b. Combustion
c. Impact of technology
d. Land reclamation
C. Oil and natural gas
1. Oil and natural gas products, their characteristics and uses
2. Availability and exploration
a. Relevant geology
b. Reserves
c. Global demand, supply, and distribution
3. Environmental impacts
a. Production and transportation
b. Combustion
4. Case study: The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
II. Synfuels
A. Introduction and definitions
1. Tar sands or oil sands
2. Gas hydrates or methane hydrates
3. Coal liquefaction
4. Coal gasification
B. Environmental impacts of synfuels
III. Energy consumption
A. Highly developed vs. developing countries
B. Perspective on recent energy crises in the United States
C. A proposed energy strategy for the United States
1. Increase energy efficiency and conservation
2. Secure future fossil fuel energy supplies
3. Develop alternative energy sources
4. Minimize future impact on the environment
Nuclear Energy
I. Nuclear energy
A. Historical perspective
B. Introduction to nuclear processes
1. Structure of atoms and associated terminology
2. Radioactivity
C. Nuclear processes as a source of energy
II. Nuclear power plants
A. Fuel deposits and the nuclear fuel cycle
B. Basic power plant design and energy production
1. Production of electricity
2. Safety features
C. Compare and contrast nuclear fission, breeder nuclear fission and
fusion
D. Nuclear power vs. conventional energy sources
1. Comparison to coal with respect to pollution
2. Replacement for oil?
E. Costs, including plant construction and safety issues
1. Consumer perception
2. Plant construction costs
3. Costs associated with upgrading or prematurely closing outdated plants
III. Safety in nuclear power plants, waste products, and potential impact
A. Safety in nuclear power plants
1. Case study: Three Mile Island
2. Case study: Chornobyl
B. Link between nuclear energy and nuclear weapons
C. Radioactive wastes
1. Low-level vs. high-level wastes
2. Storage of nuclear wastes
a. Low-level: Carlsbad, NM
b. High-level: Yucca Mountain, NV
3. Decommissioning nuclear power plants
D. Potential biological impact and DNA
IV. The uncertain future of nuclear power
Renewable Energy and Conservation
I. Renewable energy sources
A. Direct solar energy
1. Passive vs. active solar heat
2. Solar thermal electric generation
3. Photovoltaic solar cells
4. Solar-generated hydrogen
B. Indirect solar energy
1. Biomass energy
a. Products: gas, liquid
b. Advantages and disadvantages
2. Wind energy
3. Hydropower
a. Dams
b. Ocean waves
c. Ocean thermal energy conversion
C. Other renewable energy sources
1. Tidal energy: limited distribution and potential problems
2. Geothermal energy
a. Hydrothermal reservoirs
b. Hot, dry rocks
II. Energy conservation and efficiency
A. Energy consumption trends
1. Economics
2. Technology
a. Energy Star - a consumer awareness program
b. Cogeneration
B. Efficiency
1. Commercial buildings
2. Homes
Semester II
Our Precious Resources
Water a Fragile Resource
I. Water : the basics
A. Structure and properties of water
1. Molecular structure
2. Physical properties and their significance
B. Hydrologic cycle
1. The prevalence of seawater
2. Potential reservoirs or sources of fresh water
C. Increasing dependence on freshwater resources
1. Population growth and increased demand
2. Per capita use and increased demand
II. Resource issues: water supply and quality
A. Water uses, particularly irrigation
B. General water resource problems
1. Floods
a. Case●in●Point: the floods of 1993
2. Arid and semi-arid regions and drought
3. Depletion of surface and groundwater supplies
4. Salinization from irrigation
C. Water problems in the United States
1. Surface water and increasing population in arid and semi-arid
regions
a. Mono Lake, replacement with reclaimed water
b. Colorado River basin supply issues
2. Groundwater
a. Uses and increasing demands
b. Ogallala Aquifer
3. The San Francisco Bay and its delta
D. Global water issues
1. Adequate clean water supply
2. Population growth and increasing demands
3. Sharing water resources between countries
a. The Rhine River basin
b. The Aral Sea
4. Potentially volatile situations involving sharing international
water resources
III. Water management and conservation
A. Recognizing water as a resource
B. A sustainable water supply
1. Role of dams and reservoirs
a. Impact of dams on fisheries: Case●in●Point: the Columbia
River
b. Impact of dams on human activities and interests:
Case●in●Point: the Missouri River
2. Water diversion projects
3. Desalinization
C. Conservation of water resources
1. Agriculture
2. Industry
3. Municipal, including actions of individuals
Soils and their Preservation
I. Soils: an introduction
A. Definition
B. Composition and formation of soil
1. Composition of soil
2. Organization or soil horizons
3. Soil and nutrient cycling
C. Physical and chemical properties of soil
1. Texture and particle size
2. Soil pH and plant growth
D. Major soil groups
II. Environmental soil issues
A. Erosion
1. Case●in●Point: The American Dust Bowl
B. Nutrient mineral depletion
C. The United States
1. Problems
2. Policies
D. International perspective
III. Conservation and reclamation
A. Conservation
1. Conservation tillage
2. Crop rotation
3. Contour plowing, strip cropping, and terracing
4. Fertilizer, organic or commercial inorganic?
B. Reclamation
Minerals: A Non-Renewable Resource
I. Minerals: an introduction
A. Definitions
1. Minerals; sulfides and oxides
2. Rocks and ores; high-grade and low-grade
3. Metallic and nonmetallic minerals
B. Formation and distribution of mineral deposits
1. Formation
a. Magmatic concentration
b. Hydrothermal processes
c. Sedimentation
d. Evaporation
2. Distribution
II. Mineral resources
A. The process of mining
B. Environmental impact of mining and refining minerals
1. Effects of mining and refining on the environment
2. Case●in●Point: Copper Basin, Tennessee
3. Restoration
C. International perspective
1. Demand for minerals
2. Supply and distribution
III. Expanding mineral resources
A. New sources of minerals
1. Deposits in new locations, including Antarctica and the ocean
floor
2. Advanced technologies, including biomining
B. Extending supplies via substitution and conservation
1. Mineral substitutes
2. Conservation: reuse and recycling
3. Pros and cons of new (and smaller) appliances, conservation or
not?
Preserving Earth's Biodiversity
I. Introduction to biological diversity and why it is important
A. What is biodiversity? An inclusive definition
B. The significance of biological diversity
1. Ecosystem services and species richness
2. Genetic diversity
a. Research
b. Medicine
c. Agriculture
d. Industry
3. Aesthetics, ethics, and spiritual value
II. Threats to biological diversity
A. Extinctions
1. Endangered vs. threatened status
2. Characteristics of endangered species
3. Biologically distinct areas at particular risk
B. Human activities threatening biological diversity
1. Habitat destruction, fragmentation, and degradation
2. Invasive species
3. Pollution
4. Overexploitation
C. Case●in●Point: Disappearing Frogs
III. Conservation Issues and Policies
A. Conservation of biological diversity
1. Habitat protection
2. Habitat restoration
3. Captive-breeding programs and seed banks
4. Role of conservation organizations
B. Wildlife Management
1. Migratory animals: Case●in●Point: Arctic snow geese
2. Aquatic organisms
C. Policies and Laws
1. U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA)
a. Provisions and controversies
2. International Conservation Policy and Laws
D. What can we do about declining biological diversity?
1.
2.
3.
4.
Increase public awareness
Support research
Control pollution
Provide economic incentives
Land Resources and Conservation
I. Introduction to land resources
A. Importance of natural areas
B. Land use in the United States
II. Land resources and threats
A. Wilderness: definition and roles
B. Wild and scenic rivers
C. National parks
1. Examples and purpose
2. Threats and solutions
D. Wildlife refuges
E. Forests
1. Ecosystem services and economic value
2. Management practices
a. Harvesting practices
b. Deforestation: justification and impact
1) Tropical rain forests
2) Tropical dry forests
3) Boreal forests
4) Forests in the United States
a) Case●in●Point: Tongass National Forest
F. Rangelands
1. Importance
2. Degradation and desertification
3. Rangelands in the United States
a. Management issues
1) Grazing rights
2) Wild horses and burros
G. Wetlands
1. Ecosystem services and economic value
2. Threats
3. Policy and implementation issues
a. Definition of a wetland
b. Ownership of wetlands
4. A special case: coastal wetlands
a. Ecosystem services
b. Management issues
c. National marine sanctuaries
H. Agricultural lands
1. Ecosystem services and economic value
2. Threats and policy
III. General threats to land resources, and conservation strategies
A. Urbanization, suburban sprawl, and the need for planning
B. Land use planning
1. Public planning
2. Use of federal lands
C. Conservation of land resources
D. Meeting the Challenge: The Trout Creek Mountain Working Group
Food Resources: A Challenge for Agriculture
I. Food, nutrition, and human needs
A. Human nutrition
1. Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
2. Minerals
3. Vitamins
B. Global food supply and its impact
1. Diseases associated with malnutrition
2. Global food supply
a. Famine
b. Stockpiles of grain
3. Economics and food supply
4. Culture, economics, and food supply
5. Developing additional food resources
6. Alternative lifestyles and increasing food availability: a
vegetarian approach to nutrition
II. Agriculture
A. Types of agricultural practices
B. Domestication, genetic diversity, and genetic engineering
1. Potential problems with low genetic diversity
2. Genetic engineering of crop plants and livestock
a. Benefits, including pharmaceutical products
b. Controversy
c. Solutions?
C. Increasing yields
1. Increasing crop yields
a. Case●in●Point: The Green Revolution
b. Post-green revolution era
2. Increasing livestock yields
D. Food safety
1. Additives
2. Testing and labeling
E. Problems and solutions
1. Problems: air and water pollution, degradation of land
2. Solutions: changing agricultural practices
III. Fisheries
A. Challenges faced by commercial fisheries
1. Management issues
a. Overfishing
b. Impact of by-catch
2. Degradation of habitat
B. Aquaculture: pros and cons
Environmental Concerns
Air Pollution
I. The atmosphere and an introduction to air pollution
A. The atmosphere and its composition
B. Sources of air pollution
1. Transportation
2. Industry
3. Natural sources
C. Early detection of air pollution using bees
D. Types of air pollution
1. Particulates
2. Nitrogen oxides
3. Sulfur oxides
4. Carbon oxides
5. Hydrocarbons
6. Ozone
7. Miscellaneous
II. Air pollution and its effects
A. Outdoor air pollution
1. Human health
a. General issues
b. Children
2. Smog
a. Types of smog
b. Impact of topography and weather
c. Impact of urban heat islands
B. Indoor air pollution
1. Sick building syndrome
2. Indoor air pollution and asthma
3. Radon
4. Asbestos
III. Control of air pollution
A. Reducing air pollution and energy conservation
B. Air pollution in the United States
1. The Clean Air Act
2. Decreasing emissions from automobiles, minivans, sport utility
vehicles, trucks, and buses.
3. Case●in●Point: Los Angeles
4. Another case study: Chattanooga, Tennessee
C. Air pollution in developing countries
1. Overview
2. Case●in●Point: Mexico City
D. Global distribution of pollutants via atmospheric circulation
IV. Noise pollution and electromagnetism
A. Noise pollution
1. What is noise pollution and how is it measured?
2. Effects of excess noise
3. Control of noise pollution
B. Electromagnetism and human health concerns
Regional and Global Atmospheric Changes
I. Global warming
A. Overview of global warming or the greenhouse effect
B. Causes of climate change
1. Global warming
2. Global cooling
C. Effects of global warming
1. Ice caps and glaciers
2. Precipitation
3. Organisms
4. Human health
5. Agriculture
D. Issues and solutions to global warming
1. International perspective: highly developed countries and
developing countries
2. Decreasing greenhouse gas emissions
3. Mitigation
II. Ozone depletion
A. Overview of ozone depletion
B. Causes of ozone depletion
C. Effects of ozone depletion
D. Case●in●Point: Facilitating the Recovery of the Ozone Layer
III. Acid deposition
A. Overview of acid deposition
B. Causes of acid deposition
C. Effects of acid deposition
D. Recovering from the effects of acid deposition
IV. Synergism
Water and Soil Pollution
I. Types and sources of water pollution
A. What is water pollution?
B. Types of water pollution
1. Sewage
2. Disease-causing agents
3. Sediment pollution
4. Inorganic plant and algal nutrients
a. Red tides
b. "Dead zone" in the Gulf of Mexico
c. Eutrophication
1) Oligotrophic and eutrophic lakes
2) Artificial eutrophication
3) Controlling artificial eutrophication
5. Organic compounds
6. Inorganic compounds
a. Lead
b. Mercury
7. Radioactive substances
8. Thermal pollution
C. Sources of water pollution
1. Point source vs. nonpoint source pollution
2. Agricultural sources
3. Municipal sources
4. Industrial sources
D. Groundwater pollution
II. Water quality issues and control
A. Improving water quality
1. Purification of drinking water
2. Chlorination
3. Fluoridation
B. Sewage treatment
1. Municipal sewage treatment
a. Primary treatment
b. Secondary treatment
c. Tertiary treatment
d. Disposal of sludge
e. Abnormalities in aquatic organisms correlated with sewage
effluent
2. Individual septic systems
3. Case study: Arcata, CA
C. U.S. water pollution control
1. Legislation
a. Refuse Act of 1899
b. Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974
c. Clean Water Act of 1972, 1981, and 1987
d. Resource, Conservation, and Recovery Act
2. Case●in●Point: Water Pollution in the Great Lakes
3. The role of citizens in monitoring and enforcing environmental
protection laws
4. Individual actions that can minimize water pollution
D. International water pollution control
1. Overview
2. Case study: Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela
3. Case study: Po River, Italy
4. Case study: Ganges River, India
5. Case study: Kwale, Kenya
6. Case study: Arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh
III. Soil pollution
A. Interaction between soil pollution and water pollution
B. Irrigation and salinization
C. Remediation of soil pollution
1. Dilution
2. Vapor extraction
3. Bioremediation
4. Phytoremediation
The Pesticide Dilemma
I. Overview of pesticides
A. Definition and introduction to pesticides
1. Broad- and narrow-spectrum pesticides
2. First- and second-generation pesticides
B. Major groups of insecticides
1. Chlorinated hydrocarbons
2. Organophosphates
3. Carbamates
C. Major groups of herbicides
1. Nonselective herbicides
2. Selective herbicides
a. Broad-leaf herbicides
b. Grass herbicides
D. Major groups of insecticides
1. Chlorinated hydrocarbons
2. Organophosphates
3. Carbamates
II. Benefits and costs of using pesticides
A. Benefits of pesticides
1. Disease control
2. Crop protection
B. Problems associated with using pesticides
1. Development of genetic resistance
2. Imbalances in the ecosystem
3. Persistence, Bioaccumulation, and Biological Magnification
4. Mobility in the environment
5. Risks to human health
a. Short-term effects
b. Long-term effects
c. Case●in●Point: The Use of Herbicides in the Vietnam War
C. Solutions to the Pesticide Dilemma
1. Using cultivation to control pests
2. Biological controls
3. Pheromones and hormones
4. Genetic controls
5. Quarantine
6. Integrated pest management
7. Irradiating foods
III. Legislation and international issues
A. U.S. pesticide legislation
1. Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act
2. Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)
3. Food Quality Protection Act
B. Global pesticide issues
1. Export and use of banned pesticides
2. Import of food tainted with banned pesticides
C. Changing perceptions to limit pesticide use
Solid and Hazardous Wastes
I. Overview of solid waste and related issues
A. Why is solid waste a problem?
B. Types of solid waste
1. Municipal solid waste
2. Nonmunicipal solid waste
C. Solid waste disposal
1. Open dumps
2. Sanitary landfills
a. Problems associated with landfills
b. Special case: plastics
c. Another special case: tires
3. Incineration
a. Types of incinerators
b. Problems associated with incineration
4. Composting
II. Minimizing solid waste production
A. Goals of waste prevention
1. Example: An industrial ecosystem
B. Reducing the amount of waste
1. Pollution Prevention Act of 1990
2. Fee-per-bag approach
C. Reusing
1. Refillable bottles in the U.S.
2. Refillable bottles: an international perspective
D. Recycling
1. Paper
2. Glass
3. Aluminum
4. Other metals
5. Plastic
6. Tires
E. Integrated waste management
III. A special case: hazardous wastes
A. Introduction to hazardous waste issues
B. Types of hazardous or toxic waste
1. Dioxins
2. PCBs
3. Case●in●Point: Hanford Nuclear Reservation (nuclear waste)
C. Management issues and practices
1. Chemical accidents
2. Current policy
3. Clean-up
a. The Superfund program
b. A former military site
c. Current production of toxic waste and "green chemistry"
1) Source reduction
2) Conversion to less toxic materials
3) Long-term storage
D. Bioremediation of toxic wastes
IV. Environmental justice, ethics, and attitudes
A. Environmental justice
1. Environmental justice in the United States
2. Environmental justice in the global community
B. Ethical issues
C. Changing attitudes
Tomorrows World
I. A strategy for sustainable living
A. Major environmental challenges
B. Living sustainably
1. Principle 1: Building a sustainable society
2. Principle 2: Respecting and caring for the community of life
3. Principle 3: Improving the quality of human life
4. Principle 4: Conserving Earth's vitality and biological diversity
5. Principle 5: Keeping within Earth's carrying capacity
6. Principle 6: Changing personal attitudes and practices
7. Principle 7: Enabling communities to care for their own
environments
a. Spatial scale and control - household, local, and communitylevel involvement
8. Principle 8: Building a national framework for integrating
development and conservation
9. Principle 9: Creating a global alliance
C. Choices: What kind of world do we want