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ACES 2011: Conservation Conflicts: strategies
for coping with a changing world. Aberdeen
Arts Centre, August 22-25th
ABSTRACTS
Tuesday 23rd August 2011
Case studies (part 2):
– Land use and ecosystem services conflicts
– Species conflicts
1
Land use and ecosystem services conflicts
11.10 – 11.30 Conflict and debate surrounding biofuels: evidence from
Jatropha curcas cultivation in Malawi
Lindsay C. Stringer, Jen C. Dyer and Andrew J. Dougill
Concerns over fossil fuel depletion, energy security and climate change have been
used to support arguments in favour of biofuel cultivation. However, investment in
biofuels to date has been unevenly geographically distributed, with the majority of
attention focused on the global south. This has led to strong opposition, with fears of
negative impacts that some biofuels could have in vulnerable regions already
threatened by food insecurity, biodiversity loss, land degradation, climate change,
population growth, globalization, rural-urban migration and other challenges. These
concerns remain, despite emerging evidence in support of biofuels as a local
development opportunity. Globally, a wide range of different actors is engaged in
biofuel debates, including international organizations, governments, NGOs (local,
national and international), the private sector, researchers and local communities.
Although these actors often occupy polarised positions, empirical evidence from
different scales to underpin these contradictory views is sorely lacking. Even within
supporting camps, there is disagreement surrounding the appropriateness of different
cultivation approaches. Such diversity provides a context in which there is the
potential for considerable conflict both between and within different groups.
This paper presents case study research from Malawi and focuses on the inedible
biodiesel crop Jatropha curcas, assessing its ecological, social and economic
impacts and providing new empirical data to feed into larger-scale debates. At the
household level, a combination of traditional questionnaires and participatory
methods was employed, including transect walks, seasonal calendars and in-depth
interviews. In-depth semi-structured interviews were carried out with a wide range of
stakeholders (including policy makers and government officials, private sector
investors and extension workers) following a comprehensive stakeholder analysis.
Government interviews reflected the cross-sectoral nature of biofuel concerns and
included all relevant departments and ministries, for example, Agriculture and Food
Security, Energy, Land Resources and Forestry. Results from the household level
support proponents of the argument that biofuels represent a development
opportunity and that food insecurity fears at this scale are largely unfounded. In
particular, the data emphasise that Jatropha can deliver local benefits; diversifying
livelihoods and buffering against climate change risks. NGO-led development
initiatives promoting small-scale cultivation, in which Jatropha is used as a hedging
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material, demonstrate a positive contribution to livelihoods and local development.
Sales of seeds or production of Jatropha oil for stoves, engines, soap and paraffin
can reduce household expenditure and provide a new financial income source,
offering a supplementary livelihood activity, or in some cases, a substitute for less
attractive current activities. Additional income is commonly used to purchase food
(maize) in times of shortage, as well as farming equipment, clothes and kitchen
utensils. All households participating in the research asserted that they would not
choose to grow biofuel crops over staple food crops such as maize and groundnuts,
due to the cultural importance of maize and the primary need to provide the
household with food. Larger-scale Jatropha plantations represent an alternative
cultivation model, and provide employment opportunities for surrounding households.
However, risk of economic losses due to knowledge gaps and yield unpredictability
remain, encouraging investors to proceed cautiously. This suggests fears that large
mono-culture plantations of Jatropha will oust food production by taking over
extensive areas of land are largely unfounded at present. For local level benefits to
be realised and up-scaled into the future, institutional support in terms of knowledge
and technical provision is vital and must be communicated through well-established
and locally-appropriate channels. Furthermore, successful local models need to be
accompanied by supportive policy. The Malawi government has several policies that
address food security but none that include explicit recognition of the trade-offs and
conflicts associated with biofuel production. More holistic evaluation of the biofuel
debates is needed to inform balanced and realistic policy. Enhanced multistakeholder dialogue is central to addressing this challenge and will help to reduce
future conflicts.
Dr Lindsay Stringer's research is interdisciplinary and uses theories and methods
from both the natural and social sciences to understand environmental change and
livelihood dynamics. She has field experience in Africa, the UK and Eastern Europe.
Lindsay has published numerous peer-reviewed articles in leading international
journals, as well as book chapters, working papers, book reviews, magazine articles
and policy reports. She has also presented her work at international conferences
across the world
3
11.30 – 11.50 Social preferences for future land use scenarios in a semi-arid
watershed: Potential conflicts between the management of ecosystem services
Marina García-Llorente, Berta Martín-López, Paulo Ald Nunes, Antonio J.
Castro and Carlos Montes
Dealing with the invisibility of the ecological functioning underlying the provision of
benefits to human well being, stated preference techniques can be successfully
applied to the valuation of ecosystem services, as well as, to assess the trade-offs
between different possible management policies. Within the ecosystem services
framework, this study explores the management of the Nacimiento watershed (SE
Spain) through choice experiments techniques. The study area constitutes part of the
only arid zone of Europe, which water constraint has determined its social and
ecological values. Historically, subsistence farming has been one of the main
economic activities contributing to the creation of the unique landscape of terraces
and old irrigation channels. At the same time, the presence of a National Park from
1999 in the area influences the land uses permitted, and promotes ecotourism in the
area. More recently, the wind farms surface has increased to cover 21% of the
watershed surface in the last ten years. From the begging of the study, local
population has been involved through semi-structured interviews, which helped to
identify the principal factors affecting the watershed. Also, provisioning (i.e. food,
energy), regulating (i.e. erosion control, habitat for species), and cultural (local
identity, recreational activities) services interrelated with all these land uses practices
has been identified in the region. Additionally, with the aim of engaging the
population, an effort was made to include the preferences of the residents, workers in
the agropecuarian sector, employers in ecotourism or environmental education
activities, managers of the protected area, local development agents, and other local
government staff. In total, 200 respondents participated in the study. Two ecological
(river welfare and natural protected area surface), three socio-economic (traditional
agriculture surface, ecotourism facilities, and wind farms surface) and one monetary
attribute were selected to reflect the variety of economic benefits generated by the
watershed. In this way, trade-offs between different management scenarios allowing
policy alternatives were evaluated. Interactions between increase ecotourism
facilities and promote the natural protected area surface conservation were positive.
Meanwhile, conflicts of interest emerged between increasing traditional agriculture
and natural protected areas surfaces and also between traditional agriculture and
ecotourism. However, results indicate that higher levels of any single attribute
increase the probability that a management scenario was selected. There was
general support for a new management scenario fostering traditional agriculture, as
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well as ecotourism, and improving the river quality. Furthermore, younger people,
with a higher education degree, and with higher salaries were more likely to support
the watershed management situation proposed. This is a pilot-study to explore social
preferences towards different land uses and their ecosystem services in rural and
semi-arid environments under complex circumstances. We found that diversification
of the local economic activities is essential to maintain the viability of rural
populations as well as to maintain the ecosystems integrity. The results could be
useful for managers when planning new policy scenarios or when taking effective
investment decisions.
5
11.50 – 12.10 Socio-ecological conflict in the Intag valley, Ecuador
Karen S Buchanan
Competition over the future development of natural resources, particularly
biodiversity, land and mineralised deposits beneath, lies at the root of a multi-scalar
socio-environmental conflict which is the case study presented in this paper. The site
of the conflict is the Intag valley in the Western Cordillera's Chocó-Andean
Equatorial forest in North West Ecuador. Here the competing development
perspectives of a transnational copper mining company and local farming
communities have resulted in a protracted dispute involving local, national and
international actors.
The conflict centres around a proposed large-scale open-cast copper mine in a
remote cloud-forest location in close proximity to primary cloud-forest. Proponents of
the mine support the development of a mining-based economy in the region. The
mine's opponents propose protecting the biodiversity of the cloud-forest and its
ecosystem services and are actively developing ecologically-adapted forms of local
economic development as an alternative form of rural economy.
Large-scale extractive industries are among the most contentious human activities on
the planet. This paper will present an analysis of the irreconcilable nature of opencast mining and biodiversity conservation in Intag in particular and the socioecological conflicts which inevitably arise from mining concessions being awarded in
areas of significant biodiversity importance in general before concluding with a
reflection on the alternative solutions employed in managing the Intag conflict and
their wider applicability.
6
12.10 – 12.30 Possible land use conflicts and synergies between the expansion
of a sustainable bioenergy and food production in Denmark
Tommy Dalgaard and Ben Christen
The Danish Parliaments plan for Green Growth include ambitious goals for bioenergy
crop production (100.000 ha extra to be planted) and the expansion of biogas
production to use 50% of all animal manures by 2020, and a doubling of the organic
farmed area over the next decade. The aim of this paper is, based on a geographical
analysis, to review possible synergies and land-use conflicts between such
expansion of bioenergy production and the development of organic farming and other
types of food production. Especially, we will discuss possible landscape scale
synergies, and rural development perspectives, including the major barriers, and
spatio-temporal problems, for the development planned. This includes a discussion
of potentials to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. For a more holistic approach we
also include the land managers’ perspective by linking our findings to the results of a
recent fuzzy cognitive mapping exercise with farmers in Denmark, regarding the
drivers of change to elements of the farming landscape. It is concluded, that the
planned 150% increase in organic farm area is realistic, and, in combination with
bioenergy crop production for the biogas plants and other energy purposes, it is even
possible to make the organic farming sector independent of manure imports from
conventional farming, and reduce the emissions of greenhouse gasses significantly,
while sustaining the overall food production. This will contribute to the vision of a
Danish Economy independent of fossil fuels by 2050, as stated by The Danish
Climate Commission, and may add to the development goals defined in the Danish
Rural Development Program.
7
14.30 – 14.50 Challenges of bird conservation in agricultural landscapes :
Jeremy Wilson
Intensive agricultural production systems increasingly dominate European land use
and have been associated with widespread, prolonged and severe biodiversity loss.
The scale and causes of these losses have been especially well documented for bird
populations. Equally, remaining low-intensity agricultural systems play critical roles
in biodiversity conservation. Across this spectrum, taxpayer support for agriculture
and rural development activities accounts for 40% of the European Union budget.
Here I review some of the successes and failures to date in halting and reversing
biodiversity loss in agricultural landscapes, focusing on case studies from bird
conservation in the UK, and the challenges to be overcome if by 2020 areas under
agriculture are “to be managed sustainably, ensuring conservation of biodiversity”
(Aichi biodiversity target 7).
Jeremy Wilson is Head of Research for RSPB Scotland, and manages a broad
portfolio of field research to help solve bird conservation challenges in agricultural,
upland and marine environments. He has long-term research interests in the
relationships between agricultural management and bird conservation, including the
biodiversity consequences of organic agriculture, the impacts of agricultural change
on individual bird species of high conservation concern, and the effectiveness of agrienvironment management in delivering biodiversity conservation objectives.
8
14.50 – 15.10 Social conflicts and management challenges associated with the
appearance of vole outbreaks in north-central Spanish farmland
Francois Mougeot, Juan José Luque-Larena, Daniel Jareño, Alfonso Paz,
Javier Viñuela and Beatriz Arroyo
The common vole (Microtus arvalis) occurred originally in mountainous areas of
Castilla y León (Spain). However, since the 1970´s, it has colonised the agricultural
plains between the mountain ranges. Geographical expansion took place between
1970 and 1990, by when it was present in the whole of the region. This species, that
frequently presents cyclic population fluctuations in the rest of Europe, started
producing population outbreaks in farmland as soon as it colonised this habitat. This
has produced economic damages to crops in years of outbreaks, and a growing
social alarm associated to the presence of this species in farmland areas. Strategies
to manage damages to crops have included increasing use of rodenticides, which
have had negative consequences on other non-target species (high mortality of
predators, as well as game species, such as hares and pigeons, that may have
consumed poisoned grain). We present the historical evolution of distribution and
abundance of this species in this region, the factors influencing population expansion
(land use changes such as an increase in the proportion of irrigated farmland) and
those associated to population outbreaks (land use, climate). We also present
existing evidence of population outbreaks on crop production, and the impact of
rodenticide use on non-target species. We discuss current efforts to achieve
stakeholder consensus for producing acceptable protocols of action in the view of a
likely future population outbreak, and possible ways of managing the conflict.
9
15.10 – 15.30 Predator control and partridge hunting in central Spain
Beatriz Arroyo, Miguel Delibes-Mateos, Silvia Diaz, Alba Estrada, Pablo
Ferreras and Javier Viñuela
Hunting may represent an important revenue for rural communities, and hunting
management may also have important effects on the ecosystems, by managing
landscape, as well as the wildlife there (e.g. by increasing numbers of game species,
or reducing those of potential predators through predator control). Small game
hunting in central Spain is particularly important both socially and economically. The
most important small game species, the rabbit and the red-legged partridge, inhabit
farmland habitats and have suffered important declines in recent decades.
Concurrent to this decline, there has been an increase in the economic interest of
hunting in rural areas, which has led to an increase in management intensity. Among
management practices for small game, the most important include provision of food,
predator control and an increasing in the use of farm-reared animals to sustain
hunting yields. Predator control is considered among most managers as essential to
the maintenance of viable hunting estates, and this associated to the increasingly
tight regulations to perform it have led to a feeling of frustration by managers and
sometimes to the use of illegal methods (such as use of poison). We evaluate the
effects of predator control on hunting yield and partridge abundance, and conclude
that predator control does not appear to have an effect on either (as currently
implemented). Predator control intensity was unrelated to the abundance of
predators. On the other hand, predator control intensity was directly related to the
perception of its need by the managers. We evaluate the relationship between
predator control intensity and the abundance of protected species (both predators
and ground-nesting species), and discuss the relationship between perceptions,
economic viability and the maintenance of healthy multifunctional hunting estates.
10
15.30 – 15.50 Selection of biodiversity indicators for advising conservative
grassland management; the balance between economic yield and ecosystem
service provision
Ian Little
Internationally, only 1.4% of grasslands are protected, the lowest of any terrestrial
vegetation type. Grasslands are one of South Africa’s most threatened ecosystems,
with only 2.2% formally conserved and more than 60% already irreversibly
transformed. They are incredibly diverse containing an estimated 4 000 plant
species, 15 of South Africa’s 34 endemic mammals as well as 22% of our 195 reptile
species and 33% of the 107 threatened butterfly species. Grasslands are also home
to 10 of South Africa’s 14 globally threatened bird species. In addition to their
biodiversity value, grasslands provide essential ecosystem services required to
support human life and wellbeing. These services include food (grain), forage,
livestock, game farming, water and nutrient cycling, soil stabilization, carbon storage,
energy supply, tourism and recreation. In South Africa, which is an arid country,
grasslands contain and support the catchments for 42 river ecosystems which
provide both freshwater to the populous as well as hydro-electric power. Given the
fact that South African grasslands, like grasslands worldwide, support extensive
agricultural and mining potential the conservation of biodiversity and sustainable
ecosystem services requires careful management. In this talk it is proposed that
livestock agriculture on native grassland is the most potentially conservation friendly
form of land use, depending on grazing and burning intensity. This form of land use
has the potential to support intact ecosystem services and biological diversity. We
present the potential use of and the process for selecting indicator species,
proposing the Yellow-breasted Pipit (Anthus chloris) above others, for ecologically
sustainable grassland management. We also propose new techniques for the
assessment of sustainable grassland grazing and burning regimes. The Threatened
Grassland Species Programme (TGSP) of the Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT)
plans to use the presence of this species to guide landowners towards conservation
friendly management. Finally, we explore the ability of grasslands to support
economically sustainable and ecologically friendly livestock agriculture.
11
16.40 – 17.00 Conflicts in Deer Management in the Scotland
Justin Irvine
There is a new awareness that society relies on the goods and benefits that
ecosystems provide. However, rural areas are owned and managed by an increasing
variety of private, public and third-sector interests. This has led to an increasing
diversity of management objectives across a landscape. Where natural resources
extend beyond ownership boundaries or where there are public interests in the
sustainability of these resources there may be benefits in developing collaborative
approaches to management so that the balance between public benefits and private
interests is sustainably managed. Wild deer management in Scotland is a useful
case study to investigate how this balance can be achieved and the consequences
for social, economic and environmental benefits. Wild deer are a valued resource
providing employment, support for rural economies and venison. However, there
impact on vegetation can shape our landscapes and damage natural heritage. Wild
deer range freely across land-ownership boundaries and therefore management of
deer on one land-holding can affect the utilisation of this resource by neighbours
leading to conflict. Structures to facilitate collaboration have evolved to deal with
some of these issues but the increasing dominance of natural heritage and public
access legislation and the emphasis on ecosystem services demands new methods
to help owners and managers make informed and balanced management decisions.
Here we report on an investigation into collaboration and a novel GIS based mapping
tool that can be used to investigate conflicts over deer management at the landscape
scale and to test potential future land-use scenarios that may result from policies
designed to address the ongoing environmental change. This work was part funded
by RELU and the Forestry Commission. over land-use objectives. Recently I have
taken over the coordination of an EU FP7 project looking at the role of hunting for the
conservation of biodiversity in Europe and Africa (http://fp7hunt.net) and a Defra
funded Darwin grant developing community based natural resource management
approaches in the Ethiopian highlands (www.macaulay.ac.uk/CAMP/). I am a
member of i) the Deer Commission for Scotland’s Deer Management Round Table, ii)
the Cairngorms Deer Advisory Group, iii) SNH’s Code for Deer Management”
Reference Group iv) NERC Peer Review College.
Justin Irvine is an ecologist who increasingly collaborates with researchers from
other disciplines and stakeholders in the land-use sector to address issues over the
effective management of our natural resources. Current work focuses on the
dynamics of upland herbivores focusing competitive interactions to understand the
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relative impacts of wild and domestic herbivores on the biodiversity and conservation
of upland habitats in the light of current and future changes in land-use policy. In
relation to this I have held a RELU funded project entitled “Collaborative frameworks
in land management: A case study on integrated deer management”
(www.macaulay.ac.uk/RELU) which has brought together a range of stakeholders
and researchers relevant to deer to address conflicts
13
17.00 – 17.20 From conflict to a compromise – the Case Great Bear Rainforest
in British Columbia
Heli Saarikoski, Kaisa Raitio and Janice Barry
After a decade of intense conflicts over Canada’s Great Bear Rainforest, disputing
parties reached agreement in 2006 over the long-term management of 6.4 million
hectares of coastal temperate rainforests. Through what has been called a "landmark
environmental planning initiative" (McGee et al. 2009), the British Columbian
Province, First Nations, environmental non-governmental organisations (ENGOs),
forest industry and other relevant sectors agreed to increase protected areas to 28
percent of the land base; employ the principles of ecosystem-based management in
commercial forests; and find new ways to promote economically viable, stable
communities. The process also gave rise to new relations between area First Nations
and the provincial government. A focal question from sustainable natural resource
management perspective is what the key factors were that helped to turn this socalled "War in the Woods" into peace in the woods. In this paper, we draw on indepth interviews with the key actors in the GBR debate to examine closely the multiscalar processes that contributed to a successful settlement of the decade-long
conflict; success understood in terms of finding a solution that the disputing parties
preferred over continuing the conflict. We are particularly interested in the actors'
perceptions of the critical events and turning points in the policy process, as well as
the broader discursive and political dynamics and institutional changes that were at
play in this drastic reformulation of British Columbian forest policy. Our analytical
approach combines insights from consensus building literature (Susskind et al 1999,
Forester 1999, Innes 2004) with an analytical framework that underscores the
institutional and political as well as discursive aspects of policy processes (Cashore
et al 2001).
14
17.20 – 17.40 Visitor perceptions of prescribed burning in northern England –
is there a conflict between recreation and land management
Gareth Clay, Evan Fraser and Fred Worrall
The uplands of England are highly valued for their ecosystem services including
food, timber and water supply. Different stakeholder groups, however, derive
multiple benefits from these ecosystem services and manage the land in different
ways. For example, many areas the uplands in England are managed by prescribed
burning of vegetation in order to provide habitat for sheep and grouse. Visitors to
these areas are particularly vital to the local rural economy. However, anecdotal
evidence and references in published studies refer to a conflict between prescribed
burning and recreation. Phrases such as “public hostility” conjure up images of a
public antagonistic towards rural land management. However, how much of this view
is based upon broad generalisations of anecdotal evidence? In order to investigate
this perceived conflict a small scale study was carried out in three National Parks in
northern England (Yorkshire Dales, North York Moors, and Peak District). In a short
survey delivered face to face, visitors to National Park visitor centres were asked if
they had seen prescribed burning in the uplands and were then asked a series of
supplementary questions in order to explore their knowledge and any opinion of the
management technique. The survey demonstrated that the general public who
visited these three upland areas had a high level of awareness of managed burning,
with around 70% having seen burning somewhere in the UK. Contrary to the conflict
that had been previous cited, there were very few hostile comments made about
prescribed burning. Responses varied slightly between National Parks but age and
familiarity with an area played a significant role in the level of awareness of
prescribed burning with younger visitors and first time visitors generally having not
seen prescribed burning. This study also highlights that further dissemination of
information about upland land management to the general public is needed as
although most of the visitors in the survey recognised prescribed burning, many said
they knew little about the reasons behind the practice. Additionally, further work
would be required to see if the findings from northern England applied to other areas
of the UK.
15
17.40 – 18.00 A spatially-explicit agent-based model for assessing the impact
of farmers’ decisions on ecosystem services in a Scottish arable catchment
Eleonore Guillem, Andrew Barnes, Mark Rounsevell and Alan Renwick
This study aims at modelling farmers’ decision making in a cognitive fashion by
considering their preferences for the economic, ecological and social aspects of
farming strategy. Agent-based modelling is a relatively new technique that permits to
run spatially-explicit simulation of such complex systems at a number of spatial and
temporal scales. In the study, the farmer agents respond autonomously to a specific
set of behavioural rules that were developed for four behavioural types of farmers
(profit-oriented, multifunctionalists, traditionalists and hobbyists). The model predicts
individual responses to exogenous factors such as market, climate, agricultural and
environmental policies. Farmers responses to these factors is illustrated by change in
farming strategy, i.e. allocation and levels of land use activities within the farm, timing
of operations and application of agri-environmental measures. A single species with
important cultural and ecological value was chosen to measure the consequences of
such alterations at the landscape level under different scenarios. Skylarks, Alauda
arvensis, are closely related to agricultural environments and depend strongly upon
land use and management strategies. Three main scenarios were applied in the
model: Business-as-usual, economically driven and environmental protection focus.
The four types of land managers reacted differently in each scenario, emphasising
benefits and detriments to skylarks at both field and landscape levels. Hence the
findings bring a new set of recommendations for policy makers. Policies should be
tailored to address specific needs for different types of farmers in order to ultimately
maximise benefits for ecosystem services.
16
Species conflicts
11.10 – 11.30 Case study of conserving a forest species: protected area
strategies for ameliorating conflicts between forestry and conservation of
spotted owls in North America
Rocky Gutierrez
The spotted owl (Strix occidentalis) is an icon of North American conservation
because many factors have precipitated conflict over its conservation. Among these
factors are the loss of ancient forests caused by logging, economic loss to a timber
industry that gains wealth from cutting trees within these forests, social upheaval
within local communities when people lose timber industry-related jobs, the veracity
of scientific information, and political ideology. This conflict is often pitched in the
media and by protagonists as an all or nothing outcome, but could there have been
intermediate (or mediated) outcomes that lay between dire predictions that would
have avoided massive conflict? Superimposed on this complicated situation is the
most powerful and comprehensive wildlife law in the United States – The
Endangered Species Act (ESA). The ESA is portrayed as either villain or saviour by
adversarial parties. But are such depictions real, imagined, or contrived? There are
three subspecies of spotted owl, two of which are listed as “threatened” under the
tenets of the ESA. The conservation of each subspecies has followed a different
path and it is my belief that the potential timber value of the trees within owl habitat
and the intransigence of various parties, each with its own desired outcomes or
political agendas, has led directly to each subspecies either being listed or not listed
as threatened. Embedded in this morass of conflict are wildlife scientists who
endeavour to provide basic knowledge of the owl’s status and ecology that could help
provide creative solutions to the conservation dilemma. Reliable scientific knowledge
is an asset to problem solving in conservation, not a liability or an impediment
although it can be perceived as an impediment when it raises the veil of political
obfuscation. I portray briefly the history of spotted owl conservation by outlining
some potential economic and ecological consequences of owl conservation, the
reasons why two subspecies were listed under the ESA and not the third, why
science can play a role in problem solving, why misinformation and ideology are
counterproductive to real problem solving, and, finally, why it often seems that a “will
to win” has superseded a “will to compromise.” Many human-wildlife conflicts
involving forest wildlife share broad similarities with the spotted owl situation. I will
attempt to connect those similarities in my conclusion.
17
R. J. Gutiérrez currently holds the Gordon Gullion Endowed Chair in Forest Wildlife
Research at the University of Minnesota, St. Paul, USA. He received his BS degree
in Wildlife Biology, Colorado State University in 1971, his MS in Biology from the
University of New Mexico in 1973, and his PhD in Zoology from the University of
California, Berkeley in 1977. He has held positions at Cornell University, Humboldt
State University, and the University of Minnesota. His research interests are game
bird ecology and management, endangered species management, and forest wildlife
relationships. He has published over 130 peer-reviewed papers, 1 book, and
coedited 8 wildlife compendia. He has mentored over 40 graduate students during
his 33 year university career. He began studying spotted owls in 1980 near the
beginning of this decade’s long conservation conflict. Because of his work, he has
been served on many wildlife panels, government task groups, and NGO boards. He
became interested in human-wildlife conflict issues because of human conflicts
arising from the effects of logging on wildlife, effects of development on endangered
species, and the direct exploitation of wildlife.
18
11.30 – 11.50 Conservation of Peregrine Falcons Falco peregrinus on land
managed for red grouse Lagopus l. scoticus shooting: widespread
demographic impacts of illegal persecution
Arjun Amar
Following the introduction of organo-chlorine pesticide in the 1950s and 1960s,
peregrine falcons Falco peregrinus populations showed global declines and played a
vital role in alerting the world to the dangers of these pesticides. Following their ban,
peregrine populations in many countries have since recovered. In the UK however,
increases have not been uniform, with slow growth and localised declines in some
areas, including those managed for the recreational shooting of red grouse Lagopus
lagopus, a habitat type in which the species has been historically persecuted. Using
peregrine nesting histories across Northern England between 1980 and 2006,
together with a 1-km resolution remotely sensed map of grouse moor management,
we explore whether breeding success was lower for nests surrounded by active
grouse moor. Productivity of pairs occupying territories on grouse moors was 50%
lower than pairs breeding on non-grouse moor habitat, this was due to a lower
probability of laying, lower hatching success and lower fledging success. There was
no difference in clutch size and brood size of successful nests, suggesting that food
shortages were unlikely to explain the differences in breeding performance. May
rainfall had a negative effect on pairs breeding on non-grouse moor habitat but not
on grouse moors, suggesting that other factors were limiting breeding success in this
habitat type. Information on wildlife crime incidents suggested that persecution of the
species was associated with grouse moor habitats; direct illegal interference of
nesting peregrines on grouse moors is therefore considered the most likely
explanation for the lower breeding performance found in this study. Population
models suggested a source-sink dynamics, with pairs on grouse moors being unable
to sustaining themselves without the relatively high productivity of pairs in the
surrounding non-grouse moor habitats. The Northern England peregrine population
will be more secure, and will be better able to function as a barometer of
environmental health in the future if illegal persecution of the species can be stopped
on areas of land managed for grouse shooting.
19
11.50 – 12.10 Beaver Fever: Conflict, Controversy and the Scottish Beaver Trial
Rose Hanley-Nickolls and Andrew Midgley
The reintroduction of European beavers (Castor fiber) to Scotland has been
surrounded by controversy since the idea was first seriously mooted over a decade
ago. The current trial reintroduction in Knapdale Forest, Argyll, has become the focus
of conflicts between local residents and national organisations, the conservation
movement and the land management community.
This paper identifies the key agents of these conflicts and other groups and
individuals caught up in them. In-depth interviews were used to explore attitudes
towards the trial, its management and implications for the area, both on a local and
national level. As has been seen with other reintroductions, the conflict and societal
tensions surrounding the Knapdale beavers cannot be easily explained by logical
fears of human-wildlife conflict. Here it is the underlying historical context of the area,
the social, political and economic landscapes that are driving the controversy.
Arguments between and within social groups on diverse topics such as animal
welfare, the role of government, rural decline, conservation priorities and historical
grievances are identified and discussed. With the Knapdale trial due to end in 2014,
and with the future of beavers in Scotland still uncertain, this paper provides some
insight into how we could better manage future trials and releases. By understanding
the social impacts of the involvement of stakeholders through to the provision of
information and transparency of the decision making process of the current trial, we
can hope to reduce the level of conflict created by these creatures in the future.
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12.10 – 12.30 Understanding livelihood protection strategies in the face of
human-elephant conflict using multi criteria decision analysis: a case study
from Bandipur National Park, India
Nicholas Halle, Nisha Owen and Mette Termansen
We conducted semi-structured interviews with 80 households in 13 villages along the
northern boundary of the park between June and July 2009. This study
systematically compared all of the available conflict mitigation methods in the area
using a multi-criteria decision analysis tool to better understand the motivating factors
behind their use and the responses to them. Financial concerns were found to
dominate the decision-making of most farmers, hence preventing them from using
the most effective means of protection, which the majority of interviewees deemed to
be the use of electric fencing around individual fields. Consequently, most rely upon
traditional methods of crop protection, which often result in confrontation as
elephants become more habituated and pressures on natural resources increase.
Controversially, the resulting decision model shows that well-maintained electric
fencing along the park boundary is solution most able to fulfil the preferences of local
people. However, considering the amount of ill-feeling in the area towards the Forest
Department and their existing conflict mitigation programme, we advocate that
greater community participation combined with a wider, integrated management plan
is needed. This should simultaneously improve public perceptions towards conflictmitigation measures as well as improve the performance of such a scheme.
Nevertheless, given the level of stakeholder animosity, this is unlikely to be possible
without the mediation of a third party.
21
14.30 – 14.50 North Atlantic Leatherback Turtles: critical habitat and interaction
with fisheries
Isidora Katara
Leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) (LBT) are a critically endangered
species with a general declining trend; distinct populations have a different status,
with Atlantic leatherbacks being listed as endangered by SATA in Canada. A longlasting harvest of eggs, degradation of their nesting habitat and incidental captures in
fisheries have been the major threats for the species (www.redlist.org). Egg
harvesting and poaching has been rendered illegal in most countries and a number
of conservation programs are in place to protect egg clutches and nesting females.
Although a lot of progress has been made to protect the first stage of the life cycle of
LBTs, capture of juveniles and adults in fisheries still induces mortality rates higher
than those that would allow for sustainable LBT populations.
Two approaches are currently under study to provide a solution to the sea turtle bycatch problem: reduction of by-catch by altering fishing gear and methods and
management of 'hotspots' where turtles concur with fisheries (Hays et al., 2004). The
first approach has showed some promising results with the use of hooks of bigger
size and different shapes significantly reducing turtle by-catch while allowing for
economically viable fisheries (Watson et al., 2004). However this is not always the
case, thus rendering trials of turtle avoidance methods a priority, especially for fleets
that interact with endangered species (Gilman et al., 2006).
The accumulation of a large number of tracking data has enabled us to identify areas
of temporary residency for LBTs and provide the necessary background for LBT
conservation along their long migration routes. In the Pacific the narrow migratory
routes that the local LBT populations follow, constitute an ideal case for the
implementation of areas of restricted fishing activity (Morreale et al., 1996). In the
North Atlantic, however, LBTs disperse widely throughout the ocean. LBTs tagged
along the beaches of French Guiana and Suriname revealed large-scale 'hotspots' of
'conflict' between LBTs and fishing fleets along frontal areas in the north and in the
equatorial current system (Ferraroli et al., 2004). In the west-north Atlantic the
collection of information from LBT Argos tracks (James et al., 2005), spanning
through a decade, has facilitated the identification of meso- and small-scale high use
areas, in an effort to provide manageable areas of conservation. Such regions reside
within the waters of Atlantic Canada, along the US shelf waters and in the tropical
north Atlantic. Furthermore previously unaccounted sources of mortality, such as
coastal fisheries have been detected (James et al., 2005) and the strong seasonal
component of habitat usage observed for this species has been described. The
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periodicity of LBT residency areas, the characterization of LBT critical habitat at local
scales and the acknowledgement of locally important mortality sources delineate a
framework for the development of effective protection schemes and policies.
Moreover a thorough understanding of LBT habitat use and correlation to
oceanographic features aims to enhance our ability to predict their movements and
foresee possible habitat shifts in a changing environment.
23
14.50-15.10 Piloting community incentive schemes to reduce bycatch of
dugongs in artisanal fisheries of Madagascar and Comoros
Patricia Davis, Ismael Leandre and Chris Poonian
Rapid assessments of dugong populations were conducted around northern
Madagascar and Comoros using a combination of fisher surveys and seagrass
habitat mapping. Data from live and dead sightings; causes of mortality,
socioeconomic aspects of hunting and taboos and myths were gathered from over
1000 fisher interviews. Interpretation of these data, coupled with broad- and finescale mapping of shallow seagrass beds has led to the identification of hotspots for
conservation actions based on frequency of sightings and risk of threats. Although
dugong populations have been decimated by hunting over the last few decades,
accidental bycatch in artisanal gillnet fisheries was found to be the most significant
current cause of mortality in both countries. Communities in these hotspot areas
were consulted and engaged in the design and implementation of management
actions including (i) creation of protected areas (ii) restrictions in usage of gill nets (iii)
incentivized bycatch reduction schemes. Given the widespread poverty and
dependence on small-scale fisheries, particularly gill nets, finding solutions to
mitigate anthropogenic threats must include substantial community buy-in and
tangible benefits for fishers. Appointment of community conservation monitors
provided a means for monitoring, information exchange and carcass recovery. At the
national level, data contributed to the creation of conservation management plans for
dugongs which had knock-on benefits for a multitude of other species including
important artisanal or commercial fish and other endangered marine megafauna such
as sea turtles. Extension of such projects to other countries in the western Indian
Ocean, particularly with emphasis on transboundary management plans are critical to
ensuring survival of the species in this region over the coming decades. Methods
developed in this study have been incorporated into a global standardized protocol
by the UNEP Convention on Migratory Species with a view to facilitating rapid data
collection at low-cost throughout over 40 range states.
24
15.10 – 15.30 Public perceptions of large carnivores and their conflicts in rural
Albania
Aleksandër Trajçe, Aleksandra Majić, Nicolas Lescureux and John Linnell
Large carnivore conservation worldwide is depended both on ecological and human
factors. The majority of large predators require vast areas to hunt and roam, but
there are few protected areas in the world that are large enough to sustain viable
populations of carnivores away from anthropogenic habitats. Hence, carnivore
conservation mostly needs to be carried out in the wider landscape matrix, where
they often come into conflict with human activities. Their presence in the matrix is
highly dependent on the extent of damage they cause to humans and the extent to
which humans tolerate these conflicts. Consequently, adequate knowledge on
human-large carnivores’ relationships is crucial for their conservation. One way to
look at “social factors” related to carnivore conservation is through human dimension
studies. Human dimensions research provides insights into understanding human–
wildlife relationships and can contribute to better management and policy measures
in relation to wildlife management. Current conservation initiatives tend to clump
large carnivore species together as a “functional guild”, mainly taking into
consideration their similar ecological requirements. However, public perceptions and
attitudes of large carnivores vary substantially depending on the species concerned.
Differences in public perceptions suggest that a “guild” approach for the conservation
of large carnivores may be a wrong practice, as negative attitudes towards a
particular species might influence negatively the support for conservation for the
entire guild.
To test differences in attitudes towards wolves, bears and lynx in Albania and the
implications that might arise for their conservation, a human dimensions survey was
conducted between April 2007 and January 2009 (n = 397). From the existing
information on the distribution and abundance of large carnivores in Albania wolves
are considered the most common and widespread species, whereas lynx the most
rare and endangered. We documented differences in public attitudes and beliefs
towards the three large carnivore species. Wolves were consistently ranked as the
most negative species and support for their conservation was lower than for bears
and lynx. In addition, wolves were reported as the most damage-causing species and
the level of conflict tolerance towards them was low. People tended to differentiate
wolves from bears and lynx; however they generally expressed more similar and
positive attitudes for the other two. The current conservation trends that treat large
carnivores as a “functional guild” might therefore not be appropriate for Albania.
Management plans and conservation initiatives, especially those that are based on
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public outreach, should keep wolves separate from bears and lynx as lower public
support for wolves might jeopardise the conservation of the other two. Bears and lynx
can potentially be treated together based on their similar conservation issues and
public support, whereas wolves need to be addressed separately from a conflictsolution point of view.
26
16.40 – 17.00 Human-carnivore conflict: identifying predictors of protected
carnivore persecution
Freya St John, Gareth Edwards-Jones, Aidan Keane, Richard W Yarnell, Lauren
Jones, and Julia P G Jones
Human-carnivore conflicts are controversial when the carnivores concerned are
legally protected or are of conservation. Producers of livestock and game species
sometimes kill protected carnivores to reduce predation of stock, or due to
intolerance of carnivores. Both estimating levels of persecution and understanding
motivations and characteristics of people who kill protected carnivores is problematic
as rule-breakers may not wish to identify themselves. We used the randomised
response technique (RRT) to estimate the proportion of South African farmers in
Limpopo Province killing five carnivore species and performing two illegal
behaviours: failing to hold a valid permit; and using poison to kill carnivores. We
adapted the normal logistic regression model to investigate individual predictors of
carnivore killing. RRT estimated that one fifth of farmers killed leopards and a similar
proportion killed carnivores without a permit, suggesting farmers rarely hold permits
when killing protected carnivores. Farmers’ attitude towards the existence of
carnivores on ranches, question sensitivity, and farmers’ estimated prevalence of
carnivore persecutors predicted the likelihood of farmers admitting to killing
carnivores. For carnivores to continue to persist in such a human-managed
landscape interventions aimed at changing attitudes which are related to carnivore
persecution behaviour should be targeted towards farmers who hold negative
attitudes towards the existence of protected carnivores on their ranches.
27
17.00 – 17.10 Culture and communication of stakeholders regarding lynx
conservation and management in Switzerland
Manuela Von Arx
Large carnivores are considered conflict species as they compete with humans for
natural resources and – very occasionally – can even pose a risk to human life. To
counteract the conflict, mitigation measures like prevention methods, compensation,
the killing of “problem” animals or managing the population e.g. through hunting or
relocations are widely applied. Not all measures are equally accepted by people and
often stakeholders have differing perceptions of the problem and how to solve it.
While most of the human dimension research concentrates on the attitudes of
interest groups towards certain species and the development of compensation and
prevention measures to counteract damage, less emphasis is usually put on the
relations between stakeholders and how these affect policy. However, the
collaboration of stakeholders and their participation in the process of decision-making
is key for long-term success in species/landscape conservation and management as
it may have a direct influence on the level of acceptance which is again crucial for the
viability of a species. Taking the lynx (Lynx lynx) in Switzerland as an example we
aim to analyse the culture and communication of and between stakeholders: What is
important to them? How do they perceive themselves and other interest groups, their
roles? What are their interests and needs in relation to lynx conservation and
management? The aim is to create an understanding of potential conflicts and to find
ways how collaboration and communication can be improved in order to stimulate a
dialogic process.
28
17.10 – 17.30 Managing human-elephant conflict in Assam, India
Alexandra Zimmermann, Nandita Hazarika and Scott Wilson
The Himalayan foothills of north-eastern India provide one of the last remaining
strongholds of the endangered Asian Elephant. Widespread human-elephant conflict
results in the loss of both elephant and human lives, and expert groups have listed
this region a top priority for mitigation action. Our paper describes a successful
conflict management approach that combines community-based conservation with
GIS-based research. Patterns and characteristics of crop-raiding are recorded,
movements of elephants observed and mapped, and historical habits of elephants
reconstructed from local knowledge. In tandem with this, we use a participatory
approach of engaging communities to construct and maintain low-cost deterrent
methods such as fencing, chilli and lighting. Community members help collect
observational data and coordinate the deterrent trials, and are beginning to take
charge of their elephant problems themselves. Our project has considerably
increased the capacity of local people to defend their property, reduced the extent of
damage to crops (by 78% in some areas), resulted in no further deaths or injuries,
and provided over 30 communities with additional sources of livelihoods in order to
off-set the risk of loss to elephants. This presentation will summarize the lessons
learned from our approach and key findings from our spatial analyses of elephant
movements and crop-raiding patterns and the effectiveness of the crop protection
measures used.
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17.40 – 18.00 Navigating the Gridlock of Tiger Conservation: Using Grounded
Theory to Explore the Social Factors that Affect Tiger Conservation in India
Archi Rastogi, Gordon M. Hickey, Ruchi Badola and S. A. Hussain
The tiger is a potentially-dangerous predator, found in parts of the world with the
most dense and poorest human populations. In these contexts, protecting the tiger
through Protected Areas can become a significant political challenge. Specifically, to
conserve the tiger we need Protected Areas with minimal human disturbances.
However, Protected Areas that do not account for local concerns are known to create
antagonism and conflict that often jeopardizes conservation. This dilemma
represents a gridlock in tiger conservation: tiger conservation needs strict Protected
Areas; Protected Areas depend on local support, but the very establishment of these
Protected Areas can antagonize local communities. To minimize conservation-related
conflict and to better implement conservation programs, we need a deeper
understanding of the social factors that affect tiger conservation outcomes. Using
Corbett Tiger Reserve (India) as a case study, we applied grounded theory to
analyze stakeholder interactions related to tiger conservation. Building on our past
research, we were able to categorize stakeholders and generate substantive theory
on stakeholder interactions at the local level. Through this paper, we will discuss the
role of potential and existing social institutions: community institutions, nongovernment organizations and political groups. Our preliminary analysis shows that
stronger village institutions may provide better safeguards against conservation
related conflict, and can help in effective tiger conservation.
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