Download The Policy Rvw Comm Chap4

THE INDIAN POLICY REVIEW COMMISSION
Peter S. Taylor (April 8, 2015)
Chapter 4
The 19th century witnessed a rapid expansion in the boundaries of the United States. At
the conclusion of the Revolutionary War in 1780 different colonies – now independent states –
laid claim to vast stretches of land extending to the west. Great Britain, or England, had
controlled land west to the Mississippi River and that was generally accepted as our western
boundary. To affect a new national government, the states claims to western lands were
compromised and ceded to the national government, to be used among other things for payments
due the veteran soldiers in payment for their services. At least nine, possibly ten, new states
were added to the Union from these ceded western lands.
In 1803 President Jefferson, acting in his opinion un-constitutionally, purchased
Louisiana territory from France. Subsequently this land was dubbed the Louisiana Purchase.
With this purchase the U.S. laid claim to all the lands in the Mississippi River drainage basin to
the continental divide in the Rocky Mountains. Ultimately this purchase accounted for eleven
more states joining the Union.
In 1819 Spain ceded to the U.S. its claims to Florida lands. This was sort of a de facto
recognition of the fact that Gen. Andrew Jackson, as a follow-through to the War of 1812, had
entered Florida and defeated military outposts of both Spain and Britain. In 1845 we honored a
request from the Republic of Texas for annexation; in 1846 we asserted a claim of annexation of
Oregon country (a claim disputed by Great Britain); and in 1848, at the conclusion of the
Mexican American War, in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Mexico ceded to the U.S. its
claims to Alta California, thereby accounting for another four or five states. (A small sliver of
land was added with the Gadsden Puchase in 1854).
The above acquisitions constitute what is called “the contiguous United States” as it is
known today – often referred to as “the Lower 48 states”. Alaska was purchased from Russia in
1867; and in 1898 we graciously honored the request of a small cabal of persons who, with our
connivance or acquiescence, had over-thrown the native government of Hawaii, by annexing
Hawaii. With that the external boundaries of the United States were fixed as we know them
today.
But, the above only sets the stage for the treaty dealings and conflicts with the Indian
tribes and communities that preceded the settlements and organization of states that followed. It
is only possible to touch lightly on certain battles or incidents, simply to show that the American
Indian did not go gently before these incoming forces.
A very important clash of Indian and non-Indian forces occurred during George
Washington’s presidency – the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. U.S. forces under General
Anthony Wayne fought a coalition of Indian tribes at a location north of what is now Cincinnati,
Ohio. At issue was the settlement and control of the Northwest Territory. The tribes had won at
least two prior battles against federal forces, but on this occasion the federal forces outnumbered those of the tribes and the U.S. victory was decisive. This led to the Treaty of
Greenville in which the U.S. agreed to the payment of annuities, lands for occupation of the
tribes was specifically identified, and the tribes in turn ceded vast areas of land as far west as the
Great Lakes for western settlement.
The westward removal of southern tribes under Andrew Jackson’s westward removal
policy has previously been mentioned. Tribes moved included Choctaw, Chippewa, Cherokee,
Creek and Seminole to newly established Indian Territory. These are now known as the Five
Civilized Tribes.
In 1862 an uprising of eastern Sioux Indians in Minnesota was put down militarily. The
Indians had been denied rations and support by the agency that was supposed to provide for them
and corruption of the agents was suspected. A number of settlers and Indians died in the
uprising. This is known as the Dakota War of 1862.
In 1864 an event occurred at Sand Creek in Colorado. A group of Indians under the
leadership of Chief Black Kettle had come into a federal military district under a flag of peace.
While the younger men had been allowed to go out on a buffalo hunting party, the governor of
Colorado Territory, a Colonel Chivington, led his Territorial militia forces to the peaceful
encampment of the Indians and killed old men, women and children. It was first degree murder
and Chivington was later court-martialed. But the deed had been done.
In 1868 a group of southern Cheyenne, still under Black Kettle’s leadership, was
encamped along the Washita River in what is now Oklahoma. They were attacked by Gen.
George Armstrong Custer and his forces. It is probable that more than 300 tribe members were
killed.
In 1876 the Battle of Little Big Horn occurred. Custer had his last stand -- a story well
known to all. It will not be retold now. The west coast and southwest too have their stories.
In 1909 a gathering of Indian chiefs, scouts and warriors held an Indian Council in the
valley of Little Horn, Montana. They were reviewing their lives and times. Dr. Joseph Dixon,
writer and photographer, published a book in 1913 with 80 photos of Indian participants. He
titled the book The Vanishing Race. It should have been titled The Vanishing Way of Life.
There were difficulties ahead but the race continues with vibrancy.
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