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Unit 6 Study Guide: Human Anatomy & Physiology
General Info
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Four types of tissue: Muscle tissue is composed of cells that can contract. They do so because there are groups of muscle cells that
contract in a coordinated fashion. The three types of muscle tissue are: Skeletal muscle – move the bones in your trunk, limbs, and face
smooth muscle – handles the body functions that you can’t control consciously, and cardiac muscle – found in your heart. There is also
Nervous tissue, which contains cells that receive and transmit messages in the form of electrical impulse. These cells, called neurons, are
specialized to send and receive messages form muscle, glands, and other neurons throughout your body. Nervous tissue makes up your
brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It is also found in parts of sensory organs such as the retina of your eyes. Nervous tissue provides sensation
of the internal and external environment, and it integrates sensory information. Coordination of voluntary and involuntary activities and
regulation of some body processes are also accomplished by nervous tissue. Epithelial tissue consists of layers of cells that line or cover all
internal and external body surfaces. Each epithelial layer is formed from cells that are tightly bound together, providing a protective barrier
for these surfaces. Epithelial tissue lines blood vessels and your windpipe, it is also skin. Connective tissue binds, supports, and protects
structures in the body. They are the most abundant and diverse of the 4 types of tissues, and include bone, cartilage, tendons, fat, blood, and
lymph. Cells that are embedded in large amounts of an intercellular substance called matrix characterize these tissues. Matrix can be solid,
semisolid, or liquid. Bones = hard, crystalline matrix containing the mineral calcium. Cartilage, tendons, and fat cells = semisolid fibrous
matrix. Blood and lymph cells = liquid matrix.
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Systems:
Sysetm
Major Structures
Functions
Skeletal
Bones
Provides structure, supports and protects internal organs
Muscular
Muscles (skeletal, cardiac, and smooth)
Provides structures; supports and moves trunk and limbs; moves
substances through body
Integumentary
Skin, hair, nails
protects against pathogens, helps regulate body temp.
Circulatory
Heart, blood vessels, blood
transports nutrients and wastes to and from all body tissues
(cardiovascular)
Respiratory
Air passages, lungs
Carries air into and out of lungs, where gases (o2 and CO2) are
exchanged
Immune (lymphatic)
Lymph nodes and vessels, white blood cells,
provides protection against infection and disease
spleen
Digestive
Mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas,
Stores and digests food; absorbs nutrients; eliminates waste
small and large intestines
Excretory
Kidney, ureters, bladed, urethra, skin, lungs
Eliminates waste; maintains water and chemical balance
Reproductive
Ovaries, uterus, mammary glands, testes
Produces offspring * Persons says we don’t have to know much
about this system
Nervous
Brain, spinal cord, nerves, sense organs,
Controls and coordinates body movement and senses; controls
receptors
consciousness and creativity; helps monitor and maintain other
body systems
Endocrine
Glands (such as adrenal, thyroid, and
Maintains homeostasis; regulates metabolism, water, and mineral
pancreas), hypothalamus
balance, growth and sexual development, and reproduction.
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Examples of different systems integrating with other systems – Basically, we were only taught that the endocrine system and the
digestive system were integrated. Also, the digestive system and respiratory system both share the mouth and pharynx
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Integumentary System
Blood vessels provide nourishment to the living cells and help regulate body temperature. Tiny muscle fibers attached to hair follicles
contract and pull hair upright when you are cold or afraid, producing what are commonly known as goose bumps. Glands produce sweat,
which helps cool your body, and oil, which helps soften your skin. A layer of fat cells lies below the dermis. These cells act as energy
reserves; add a protective, shock-absorbing layer; and insulate the body against heat loss.
Epithelial tissue is named based on 1. Shape of cell (cuboidal, flat or squamous, or columnar) and 2. Based on the number of layers of cells.
Ex. 1 layer of flat tissue = simple squamous. Two or more layers would be stratified squamous. Rememebr, the name is based on the shape
of the individual cells, not the shape that the produce. There is also the term pseudostratified for the columnar tissue when the nuclei do not
appear at the same level, but are staggered.
Epethelial tissue lines the vessels of your bofy, organs, and makes up skin
Villi increase the surface area of the cells to allow more nutrients in faster.
Cilia and flagella are projections from the cell. They are made up of microtubules , as shown in this cartoon. They are motile and designed
either to move the cell itself or to move substances over or around the cell. The primary purpose of cilia in mammalian cells is to move
fluid, mucous, or cells over their surface.
Skeletal System
Be able to name the bones from LM 1 using scientific, and, if possible, common terms
Exterior and interior parts of long bone - periosteum – a tough membrane that surrounds and protects bones, Haversian canals –a narrow
channel where blood vessels run through, creating a network that carries nourishment to the living bone cells, called osteocytes, bone
marrow – a soft tissue that can be either red (found in spongy bone, the ends of long bones, ribs, vertebrae, the sternum, and the pelvis,
produce red blood cells and types of white blood cells) or yellow (fills the shafts of long bones and consists mostly of fat cells, and serves
as an energy reserve, and can also be converted to red marrow and produce blood when severe blood loss occurs)
Throughout a person’s life, osteoclasts breakdown bone tissue, thereby releasing the minerals calcium and phosphate to be reused in new
cells. Osteoblasts build new cells, and will become and osteocyte later on. An epithelial plate is where bone development occurs.
spongy bone – a network of connective tissue which has a lattice work that consists of bony spikes and is arranged along points of pressure
or stress, making bones both light and strong, compact bone – a hard material which is composed of cylinders of mineral crystals and
protein fibers called lamellae, cartilage – a tough but flexible connective tissue, joint – the place where two bones meet, tendon – a tough
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band of connective tissue that attaches a muscle to a bone , ligament – a tough band of connective tissue that connects bones or cartilage at
a joint or supports an organ, muscle, or other body part.
Ossification (also described above) - In the second month of fetal development, much of the skeleton is made up of cartilage. During the
third
month, osteocytes begin to develop and release minerals that lodge in the spaces between the cartilage cells, turning it into bone.
The process by which cartilage slowly hardens into bone as a result of the deposition of minerals is called ossification.
,joint – the place where two bones meet.
Fixed joints (fibrous) prevent movement (skull). A small amount of connective tissue helps absorb impact to prevent bones form breaking.
Semimovable joints (cartilaginous) permit limited movement (vertebral column, rib cage) Movable joints (synovial) enable the body to
perform a wide range of activities and include: hinge joints (elbow) forward and backward movement, ball and socket joints (shoulder) up,
down, forward, backward, complete circle, pivot joint (neck) allows head to move side to side, saddle joint (base of thumb) helps rotate
thumbs to grab things, and gliding joints (small bones in foot) allow bones to slide over each other.
skeletal muscle – moves the bones in your trunk, limbs, and face
Muscular System
skeletal muscle – moves the bones in your trunk, limbs, and face, smooth muscle – handles the body functions that you can’t control
consciously, such as the movement of food through your digestive system, cardiac muscle – found in your heart, pumps blood through your
body
sarcomere – the functional unit of muscle contraction
Myofilaments (actin is thin or myosin is thick) make up myofibrils, which make up muscle fiber.
The synchronized shortening of sarcomeres along the full length of a muscle fiber causes the whole fiber and hence the muscle to
contract.Muscles are attached the outer membrane of bone, either directly or by a tough fibrous cord of connective tissue called a tendon.
The point where the muscle attaches to the stationary bone is called the origin. The point where the muscle attaches to the moving bone is
called the insertion. Muscle moves bones by pulling them, not pushing them. The bicep is known as the flexor, a muscle that bends the
joint. The triceps muscle is an example of an extensor, a muscle that straightens a joint. During contraction, thin myofilaments slide inward
towards the center of a sarcomere (m line), thus making the sarcomere shorten. The myosin crossbridges move, like oars of a boat on the
surface of the thin M line. As the thin myofilaments slide inwards, the z lines are drawn towards each other and the sarcomere is shortened.
This causes the shortening of the muscle fiber. This is known as the sliding filament theory/ mechanism of muscle contraction.
Digestive System
Imagine that you put one end of a hose in your mouth and kept threading it through until it came out of your butt. That's more or less what
the alimentary canal is. You put food in one end of the tube and it's processed during its journey to the other end of the tube, where the
waste material comes out. In real life, the alimentary canal consists of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large
intestine. In adults, the alimentary canal is about 30 feet long. Other names for the alimentary canal include the gastrointestinal (GI) tract,
digestive tract, alimentary tract, and nourishment canal.
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Organs in digestion (Check out LM 17 A and B)
Organ/structure
Role it plays in digestion
Mouth (teeth, tongue,
Produces saliva and starts mechanical digestion (salivary amylase)
salivary glands)
Pharynx
Allows food to pass through to the esophagus (the epiglottis covers the trachea when food is swallowed to prevent
choking. During regular breathing, the epiglottis does not cover the trachea)
Esophagus
Moves bolus towards the stomach by peristalsis (the waves of involuntary muscle contractions that transort food, waste
matter, or other contents through a tube-shaped organ)
Stomach
Food breakdown both chemically and mechanically (pepsin – breaks down proteins which are held by peptide bonds, and
HCl)
Small intestines
Duodenum – continues chemical breakdown of food, jejunum – final breakdown of food (erypsin, sucrase – breaks down
sucrose into two monosaccharides, lactase – breaks down lactose, and maltase – breaks down maltose), ileum – absorption
of nutrients. (alkaline secretions)
Colon
Has bacteria which produce vitamin k, re-absorption of water
Rectum anus
Formation and storage of feces
Liver
Secretes bile, stores and filters blood, and takes part in many metabolic functions (bile)
Pancreas
Secretes juices into the small intestine as well as hormones into the blood stream (trypsin – breaks down proteins even
more into amino acids, lipase – breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol, and pancreatic amylase – breaks down
polysaccharide amylose)
Gallbladder
Where bile secreted by the liver is stored and concentrated until needed for digestion process
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The parts of the small intestine are first the duodenum, then the jejunum, then the ileum.
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Know where chemical and mechanical digestion takes place
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Circulatory system
The systemic pathway goes to the upper and lower extremities (arms, legs, head, etc.) the pulminary circuit is when the blood only goes to
the lungs.
Arteries – a blood vessel that is part of the system carrying blood under pressure from the heart to the rest of the body. Veins – and blood
vessel that carries blood to the heart. All carry oxygen-depleted blood, except the pulmonary vein, which carries oxygenated blood from the
lungs. Capillaries – an extremely narrow thin-walled blood vessel that connects small arteries with small veins to form a network
throughout the body.
Label the left and right atrium, left and right ventrical, right AV valve (tricuspid), left AV valve (bicuspid/mitral), semilunar pulmonary
valve, semilunar aortic valve, pulmonary arteries and veins, capillary beds of body and lungs, vena cava, and aorta. (LM 16A)
A myocardial infarction is a heart attack. A heart attack is the death of heart muscle from the sudden blockage of a coronary artery by a
blood clot. Coronary arteries are blood vessels that supply the heart muscle with blood and oxygen. Blockage of a coronary artery deprives
the heart muscle of blood and oxygen, causing injury to the heart muscle. Injury to the heart muscle causes chest pain and chest pressure
sensation. If blood flow is not restored to the heart muscle within 20 to 40 minutes, irreversible death of the heart muscle will begin to
occur. Muscle continues to die for six to eight hours at which time the heart attack usually is "complete." The dead heart muscle is
eventually replaced by scar tissue. Hearts attacks can be caused by Atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is a gradual process by which plaques
(collections) of cholesterol are deposited in the walls of arteries. Cholesterol plaques cause hardening of the arterial walls and narrowing of
the inner channel (lumen) of the artery. Arteries that are narrowed by atherosclerosis cannot deliver enough blood to maintain normal
function of the parts of the body they supply.
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Nervous System
A neuron is a cell, typically consisting of a cell body, axon, and dendrites, that transmits nerve impulses and is the basic functional unit of
the nervous system.
Know where the neurilemma, dendrites, cell body/nucleus, axon, myelin, and end brush of the neuron are.
When a stimulus is strong enough, a nerve impulse is generated in an "all or none" response which means that a stimulus strong enough to
generate a nerve impulse has been given. The stimulus triggers chemical and electrical changes in the neuron. Before an impulse is
received, a resting neuron is polarized with different charges on either side of the cell membrane. The exterior of the cell is positively
charged with a larger number of sodium ions present compared to the interior of the cell. The interior of the cell is negatively charged since
it contains more potassium ions than the exterior of the cell. As a result of the differences in charges, an electro-chemical difference of
about -70 millivolts occurs. The sodium-potassium pump, a system which removes sodium ions from inside the cell and draws potassium
ions back in, maintains the electrical balance of the resting cell. Since the cell has to do work to maintain the ion concentration, ATP
molecules are used to provide the necessary energy. Once a nerve impulse is generated, the permeability of the cell membrane changes,
sodium ions flow into, and potassium ions flow out of, the cell. The flow of ions causes a reversal in charges, with a positive charge now
occurring on the interior of the cell and a negative charge on the exterior. The cell is said to be depolarized, resulting in an action potential
causing the nerve impulse to move along the axon. As depolarization of the membrane proceeds along the nerve, a series of reactions start
with the opening and closing of ion gates, which allow the potassium ions to flow back into the cell and sodium ions to move out of the
cell. The nerve becomes polarized again since the charges are restored. Until a nerve becomes repolarized it cannot respond to a new
stimulus; the time for recovery is called the refractory period and takes about 0.0004 of a second. The more intense the stimulus, the more
frequent the firing of the neuron. When the impulse reaches the end of the axon, it causes the release of chemicals from small vesicles
called neurotransmitters which diffuse across the synaptic gap, the small space between the axon and receptors in the dendrites. There is no
physical contact between axons and dendrites (except in electrical transmission, usually found in invertebrates) which takes place through
gap junctions. The type of response by the receiving cell may be excitatory or inhibitory depending upon a number of factors including the
type of neurotransmitters involved. All nerve impulses are the same whether they originate from the ear, heart, or stomach. How the
impulse is interpreted is the job of the central nervous system. A blow to the head near the optic center of the brain produces the same
results as though the impulse had originated in the eyes. The neurons are the functional units of the nervous system through which
coordination and control in organisms is executed.
I have no idea what this is asking, there weren’t any answers that made sense on google. Please call me if you know any better.
A reflex arc is the neural pathway that mediates a reflex action. In higher animals, most sensory neurons do not pass directly into the brain,
but synapse in the spinal cord. This characteristic allows reflex actions to occur relatively quickly by activating spinal motor neurons
without the delay of routing signals through the brain, although the brain will receive sensory input while the reflex action occurs. The
main source of the reflex action is through the bottom muscles. There are two types of reflex arc - autonomic reflex arc (affecting inner
organs) and somatic reflex arc (affecting muscles). An example would be if you burn your hand or are hit with that hammer thing just
below the knee.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) resides or extends outside the central nervous system (CNS), which consists of the brain and
spinal cord. The main function of the PNS is to connect the CNS to the limbs and organs. Unlike the central nervous system, the PNS is not
protected by bone or by the blood-brain barrier, leaving it exposed to toxins and mechanical injuries. The peripheral nervous system is
divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.
The autonomic nervous system regulates the many physical processes that occur without conscious control, including heartbeat,
peristalsis, and breathing. The somatic nervous system consists of the cranial and spinal nerves and their many branches that serve the
skeletal muscles of the body, and the parts of the body served by these nerves are under voluntary control.
The Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) is always active at a basal level (called sympathetic tone) and becomes more active during
times of stress. Its actions during the stress response comprise the fight-or-flight response. The actions of the parasympathetic nervous
system can be summarized as "rest and digest" (as opposed to the "fight-or-flight" effects of the sympathetic nervous system). The two
systems have opposite effects and can thereby regulate the activities of the internal organs very precisely.
Myelin is a whitish material made up of protein and fats that surrounds some nerve cells in concentric sheaths, insulating adjacent nerve
fibers and enabling transmission of nerve impulses.
VIII. Excretory System
1. The nephron is the functional unit of a kidney, and produces urine in kidneys.
a. the cortex is the outer part, and the medulla is the inner part
b. the large, thick tube is the collecting duct
c. the interlobular artery goes into the afferent arteriole, then goes into the glomerulus (small network of capillaries) which is
surrounded by the Bowman’s capsule; together the Bowman’s capsule and glomerulus make the renal corpuscle
d. then into the efferent arteriole and peritubular capillary network OR from renal corpuscle goes to proximal convoluted tubule then to
descending limb of the loop of Henle then to ascending limb then to distal convoluted tubule to collecting duct
2. Urine Formation: Blood from the heart reaches the interlobular artery, of which one branch is the afferent arteriole. From here blood
flows through the glomerulus, where filtration of blood takes place. It is filtered by diffusing across the nephron tubule into the Bowman’s
Capsule. Filtered blood then enters the efferent arteriole, which branches into the peritubular capillary network. This blood also goes into
the proximal convoluted tubule that leads into the descending limb and loop of Henle then ascending limb. As it goes upwards, blood
reaches the distal convoluted tubule, reentering the capillary network as well to absorb crucial vitamins and other substances. Finally, the
“cleansed” blood is now urine passes through the interlobular vein and then to the renal vein, which removes the blood from the kidney.
The ureter then takes it away to the bladder.
IX. Respiratory System
1. Inhalation - intercostal muscles and diaphragm contract (goes downwards), increasing volume of lungs and allowing air to flow in due to
pressure difference; Exhalation - muscles and diaphragm return to normal state, air compressed and pushed out of lungs
2. Gas exchange occurs in the lungs; specifically, in the alveoli. Diffusion forces gasses to exchange (carbon dioxide goes out and oxygen is
absorbed)
Term
Definition
pharynx
the tube or cavity, with its surrounding membrane and muscles, that connects the mouth and nasal passages with the
esophagus.
trachea
the tube in humans and other air-breathing vertebrates extending from the larynx to the bronchi, serving as the
principal passage for conveying air to and from the lungs; the windpipe.
larynx
a muscular and cartilaginous structure lined with mucous membrane at the upper part of the trachea in humans, in
which the vocal cords are located
vocal cords
Either of two pairs of bands or folds of mucous membrane in the throat that project into the larynx. The lower pair
vibrate when pulled together and when air is passed up from the lungs, thereby producing vocal sounds. The upper,
thicker pair are not involved in voice production
bronchi
Either of two main branches of the trachea, leading directly to the lungs.
lung
spongy, saclike respiratory organs in most vertebrates, occupying the chest cavity together with the heart and
functioning to remove carbon dioxide from the blood and provide it with oxygen
bronchioles
Any of the fine, thin-walled, tubular extensions of a bronchus
alveoli
Any of the tiny air-filled sacs arranged in clusters in the lungs, in which the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
takes place
exhalation
the act of expelling air from the lungs
inhalation
the drawing in of air (or other gases) as in breathing
diaphragm
the partition separating the thoracic cavity from the
abdominal cavity in mammals
hemoglobin
the oxygen-carrying pigment of red blood cells that gives them their red color and serves to convey oxygen to the
tissues
3.
X. The Immune System
Non-Specific Defense
Specific Defense
Response is antigen-independent
Response is antigen-dependent
There is immediate maximal response
There is a lag time between exposure and maximal response
Not antigen-specific
Antigen-specific
Exposure results in no immunologic memory
Exposure results in immunologic memory
1.
2. 3 non specific defenses against infection: nose hair, skin, mucus
3. antigen - substance that when introduced into the body stimulates the production of an antibody. Antigens include toxins, bacteria, foreign
blood cells, and the cells of transplanted organs; antibody - Y-shaped protein on the surface of B lymphocyte cells that is secreted into the
blood or lymph in response to an antigenic stimulus, such as a bacterium, virus, parasite, or transplanted organ, and that neutralizes the
antigen by binding specifically to it.
4. Antigens active B-lymphocytes which turns into plasma cells that secret antibodies
5. Active immunity is usually long-lasting immunity that is acquired through production of antibodies within the organism in response to the
presence of antigens. Whereas Passive immunity is acquired by the transfer of antibodies from another individual, as through injection or
placental transfer to a fetus.
6. immunity - the ability of a cell to react immunologically in the presence of an antigen; vaccination - Inoculation with a vaccine in order to
protect against a particular disease
7. allergy - an abnormal reaction of the body to a previously encountered allergen introduced by inhalation, ingestion, injection, or skin
contact
8. disease - A pathological condition of a part, organ, or system of an organism resulting from various causes, such as infection, genetic
defect, or environmental stress, and characterized by an identifiable group of signs or symptom; can spread through direct contact with
another person, or indirectly (ex: drinking from same glass or touching a door handle which had been touched by a hand sneezed into)
9. Germ Theory of Infectious diseases - a theory that proposes that microorganisms are the cause of many diseases
10. Koch’s postulates
0. The microorganism must be found in abundance in all organisms suffering from the disease, but should not be found in healthy animals.
1. The microorganism must be isolated from a diseased organism and grown in pure culture.
2. The cultured microorganism should cause disease when introduced into a healthy organism.
3. The microorganism must be re-isolated from the inoculated, diseased experimental host and identified as being identical to the original
specific causative agent.
11.
Term
Definition
disease
a disordered or incorrectly functioning organ, part, structure, or system of the body resulting from the effect of genetic or
developmental errors, infection, poisons, nutritional deficiency or imbalance, toxicity, or unfavorable environmental factors
infectious
disease
a disease caused by a microorganism or other agent, such as a bacterium, fungus, or virus, that enters the body of an organism
pathogens
any disease-producing agent, esp. a virus,
bacterium, or other microorganism.
infection
Invasion by and multiplication of pathogenic microorganisms in a bodily part or tissue, which may produce subsequent tissue
injury and progress to overt disease through a variety of cellular or toxic mechanisms
XI. Food and Nutrition
1. We need to eat in order to obtain essential nutrients in order to live.
2. Main Nutrients: Carbohydrates, Fats, Proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water
3. Balanced Diet - A diet that contains the proper proportions of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water necessary to
maintain good health
Term
Definition
calorie
a unit equal to the kilocalorie, used to express the heat output of an organism and the fuel or energy value of food
water
a transparent, odorless, tasteless liquid, a compound of hydrogen and oxygen, H2O, freezing at 32°F or 0°C and boiling
at 212°F or 100°C
minerals
any of the inorganic elements, as calcium, iron, magnesium, potassium, or sodium, that are essential to the functioning
of the human body and are obtained from foods
vitamins
any of a group of organic substances essential in small quantities to normal metabolism, found in minute amounts in
natural foodstuffs or sometimes produced synthetically
carbohydrates
Any of a group of organic compounds that includes sugars, starches, celluloses, and gums and serves as a major energy
source in the diet of animals. These compounds are produced by photosynthetic plants and contain only carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen
Term
Definition
fats
Any of a group of organic compounds that includes sugars, starches, celluloses, and gums and serves as a major energy
source in the diet of animals. These compounds are produced by photosynthetic plants and contain only carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen
proteins
Any of a group of complex organic macromolecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and usually sulfur
and are composed of one or more chains of amino acids. Proteins are fundamental components of all living cells and
include many substances, such as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies, that are necessary for the proper functioning of an
organism
essential amino
acids
any amino acid that is required by an animal for growth but that cannot be synthesized by the animal's cells and must be
supplied in the diet
4.
XII. Blood
1. Function of blood - carries food and oxygen to cells, it carries waste away from cells, and serves as a carrier for various disease-fighting
cells such as the "white" blood cells. It also has a means of puncture-proofing the body: it clots, sealing up small holes quickly. Blood is
also important in maintaining a constant temperature in your body
2. Component of Blood - mostly water; plasma has all the different types (see chart below); hormones, proteins, carbs, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nitrogen
3. platelets form platelet plugs, which literally plug a spot in the body, causing blood to pile up there and clot
4.
Term
Definition
plasma
the liquid part of blood or lymph
erythrocytes
red blood cell: one of the cells of the blood, which in mammals are enucleate disks concave on both sides, contain
hemoglobin, and carry oxygen to the cells and tissues and carbon dioxide back to the respiratory organs
leukocytes
white blood cells: any of various nearly colorless cells of the immune system that circulate mainly in the blood and lymph
and participate in reactions to invading microorganisms or foreign particles, comprising the B cells, T cells, macrophages,
monocytes, and granulocytes
platelets
A minute, non-nucleated, disk-like cytoplasmic body found in the blood plasma of mammals that is derived from a
megakaryocyte and functions to promote blood clotting
antibodies
Y-shaped protein on the surface of B lymphocyte cells that is secreted into the blood or lymph in response to an antigenic
stimulus, such as a bacterium, virus, parasite, or transplanted organ, and that neutralizes the antigen by binding specifically
to it
albumin
any of a class of simple, sulfur-containing, water-soluble
proteins that coagulate when heated
fibrinogen
An albuminous substance existing in the blood, and in other animal fluids, which either alone or with fibrinoplastin or
paraglobulin forms fibrin, and thus causes coagulation
5.
XIII. Endocrine System
1. Organs within the endocrine system *don’t worry about all the glands and hormones (just know where the glands are)
Organ
Function
Heart
Fibers of cardiac muscle in the right atrium produce a hormone called atrial natriuretic peptide, which
controls the release of a hormone posterior pituitary gland and is involved in the regulation of water
levels in the body
Pancreas
Has specialized cells that produce insulin and glucagon, both of which regulate the levels of glucose in
the blood.
Kidney
Have a urinary function as well as an endocrine function. The endocrine cells of the kidney produce
the hormones erythropoietin and rennin, which are part of the angiotensin system that regulates water
Testes
Ovaries
balance in the body
Produce hormones such as testosterone that regulate sperm production and induce the development of
secondary male characteristics
Produces hormones that induce the maturation of eggs and the growth of the reproductive structures,
estrogen
XIII. Lab Practical
1. Know about pig dissection
2. Know about earthworm dissection
3. epithelial cells: can be simple or stratified and columnar, cuboidal, or squamous
4. muscle cells: skeletal - striated and voluntary; cardiac - striated and involuntary; smooth - non striated and involuntary