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BIOETHICS FORUMS
DNA Database for Criminals (Chapter A3)
Summary: The local prosecutor wants a legislator to sponsor a law to require police to take blood samples from
criminals and enter their DNA information into a computer database. Officials will use this database to find
suspects and speed prosecution. Researchers can use the database to search for a genetic basis and a treatment for criminality. The legislator must weigh the potential benefits of such a system with the potential for abuse.
1. LEGISLATOR
SENATE FLOOR
“The local prosecutor wants me to sponsor a new law. It will require police to take blood samples from criminals
and enter their DNA information into a computer database. Once we have a significant number of entries, officials
will be able to use the database to find suspects and speed prosecution. Not only that, researchers can use the
database to search for a genetic basis for criminality. This could be a valuable tool to identify and treat potential
criminals before they even commit a crime.”
SUMMARY: A proposed law requires police to take blood samples from criminals and enter their DNA information
into a computer database. The database will be used to locate and convict criminals and to search for a genetic
basis for criminality.
DISCUSSION: Discuss the use of a DNA database for criminal prosecution and the research into genetic causes
of criminality. Consider the two issues separately, as students may favor one or the other. Students must decide
whether the law should be passed.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: What are the two aims of the proposed law? How are they linked? What are the benefits
of the two parts of the law? What are the disadvantages?
2. PROSECUTOR
LAW LIBRARY
“We already photograph and fingerprint every person we book. A DNA profile just requires we take a small
amount of blood. Each sample is analyzed for key genetic variations, giving us a complete DNA profile. We enter
the profile into a national database for law-enforcement officials, speeding identification and prosecution. As easy
as fingerprinting, and more helpful. Criminals don’t always leave fingerprints at the scene of a crime, but they
leave their DNA in many forms — hair, blood, even dandruff will do. This might lead to a genetic understanding of
crime and antisocial behavior. If we could screen all kids entering school, we could cure them before they were
teenagers.”
SUMMARY: DNA identification is similar to fingerprinting, can make police more efficient, and may allow society
to identify and treat potential criminals before they commit a crime.
DISCUSSION: Discuss the concrete details of establishing a DNA database. What might be some structural
problems inherent in establishing such a database? Consider the term “cure” as used by the Prosecutor. What
does such a word connote? Is crime a disease to be cured? What are the implications of treating someone for a
condition before they exhibit any signs of the disease? Discuss civil liberty issues raised by both parts of this law.
Some students can argue that the DNA databank will make police more efficient; others can agree and claim that
identifying and treating potential criminals is good too. Others may argue that the DNA databank will give police
more information than they can be trusted with; identifying potential criminals before they commit a crime is a
violation of civil rights. In addition, they may point out that crime is being treated here as if it were solely a genetic
“disease”; crime has many causes independent of genetics.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: How can a DNA database make police more efficient? How could a DNA database enable
researchers to find a genetic cause of criminality? How would this research be used by a society? What ethical
issues are raised by both uses of such a database?
3. CIVIL LIBERTARIAN
PRESS CONFERENCE, RALLY
“You don’t have the right to take blood from the accused. Even after conviction, you don’t have the right to their
blood and genetic code. The potential for abuse is huge. Can employers deny employment to people whose DNA
shows up in the criminal registry? If researchers discover supposed genes for criminal tendencies, we could find
ourselves detaining and prosecuting totally innocent people.”
SUMMARY: DNA databases could be abused; people’s civil rights could be threatened.
DISCUSSION: Discuss the Civil Libertarian’s claims. What are civil rights? What has been their history? How do
we protect people’s civil rights? Consider the range of potential abuses of a DNA database. Consider separately
the issue of a genetic basis for criminality. What is criminality? Students can argue for or against allowing DNA
databases to be used by non-law enforcement groups.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: What right does society have to take DNA or other information from people accused of
crimes? What right does society have to take DNA information from people convicted of crimes? What limits
should be put on access to this information? How can DNA databanks be used to identify and treat criminals
before they commit a crime? What are some drawbacks to this method of identifying criminals?
4. POLITICIAN
PRESS CONFERENCE, CAPITOL STEPS
“Crime eats away at the very fabric of our society. The bad apples poison the law-abiding majority with fear and
insecurity. If we can identify the culprits, we can lock them up forever. Genetic fingerprinting will help us get every
single one: robbers, muggers, obscene telephone callers, parents who skip out on child support. With a genetic
database, there will be absolutely nowhere to run, nowhere to hide. We will convict these criminals with absolute
genetic certainty. And, with a little more science, we can even identify criminals before they strike.”
SUMMARY: Crime is tearing society apart, and DNA databases are the best way to fight it.
DISCUSSION: Discuss our society’s crime problems, how we deal with them, and how a DNA database could
help solve them. Note that for the proposed system to work efficiently, the government would need to test all
citizens regularly and know where they were at all times. Some students can argue that reducing crime is so
important that the DNA database should be developed even if it does interfere with some civil rights. Others can
argue in favor of a more limited use of the DNA database that would not interfere with civil rights. Others can note
that the Politician’s claim that the database could be used against obscene telephone callers is excessive.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: How big of a problem is crime in our society? How could a DNA database help fight crime?
How can our society balance the fight against crime with the concern for civil rights?
5. PROFESSOR
UNIVERSITY
“Whenever scientists ruminate about ‘criminal genes,’ they want to analyze the prison population. Well, how do
you quantify that? By the length of sentence? A 10-year crime is twice as bad as a 5-year crime? What is really
important is the behavior. How much anger was involved? Was it a sexual crime? Was it a crime of violence?
These questions are far more important than the technicalities of the law broken or the sentence received. Just
because someone is in jail for a certain length of time doesn’t mean that he’s a certain kind of criminal.”
SUMMARY: Researching the genetic causes of crime is difficult because it is hard to develop objective criteria.
Crime is analyzed in a subjective manner.
DISCUSSION: Discuss developing objective criteria to study crime. Students should try to develop their own
criteria for studying crime, perhaps listing crimes in order of severity (serial murders, sexual crimes leading to
death, hate crimes, etc.). Consider which qualities of a crime might be biological in nature and which might
be caused by other circumstances, including family, societal, economic, and other influences. Also consider how
the definition of crime might vary from culture to culture and from time to time. (In some countries, insulting
someone is a punishable offense.) Some students can argue that researching the genetic causes of crime is
inherently biased. Such research would be used by those in power to discriminate against those not in power.
Others may argue that the research is still valuable because crime is such a bad problem.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: What are some of the difficulties in studying crime? What criteria should be used to study
crime? What is crime? How would you rate and compare different crimes? What is the relationship between crime
and punishment?
6. BROTHER OF CRIMINAL
PRISON VISITING ROOM
“Harry steals. He’s a thief, always has been, since he was little. I grew up in the same house, same bedroom, I’m
his older brother. I couldn’t control him. We have the same parents, same genes. If they say genes control
behavior, do I lose my job because my brother’s in jail? This kind of genetic generalizing is gonna hurt a lot of
innocent people.”
SUMMARY: Research into the genetic causes of crime could lead to discrimination against law-abiding citizens
whose genes are “suspect.”
DISCUSSION: Discuss the concern that research into the genetic causes of crime could lead to discrimination
against law-abiding citizens. Use the case of these two brothers to illuminate the issues involved. Consider that
one of these brothers is a criminal and the other is not. Why might this be so? Note that genetics, environment,
and individual will all might play roles in criminal behavior. Students can argue that research into the genetic
causes of crime has too much potential to discriminate against law-abiding citizens. One brother could be a
criminal, the other a law-abiding citizen. How accurate or important could genetics be as a determining factor?
Other students can argue that the DNA database should be used only for people who have committed a crime,
not to predict crimes, and that only law-enforcement agencies should have access to the database. Still others
can argue that scientists will be able to refine and perfect the science so that no innocent people will be
discriminated against.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: How could a DNA database be used to discriminate against people who are not criminals?
What factors cause a person to become a criminal? Who should be allowed access to a DNA database?
7. CIVIL RIGHTS LAWYER LAW OFFICE
“Skin color is genetic, behavior is not genetic. You take a poor person of color out of the slums, plunk them down
in suburbia with an education and a job, and they’re a pillar of the community. Of course, the racism built into the
system still means there’s no justice. Statistics prove people of color are more likely to get arrested, get convicted,
and get a harsher sentence. Less likely to get a good lawyer or parole. This search for genetic links is just another
excuse for bigotry.”
SUMMARY: Crime is caused by racism and a lack of economic opportunity; the DNA database will continue the
pattern of bigotry in our justice system.
DISCUSSION: Discuss the Lawyer’s arguments. Consider different aspects of racism and poverty that could
affect crime and perceptions of crime. Include discussion of the justice and law enforcement system as well as
actual causes of crime.
Some students can argue that research into the genetic cause of crime is misguided and will lead to
discrimination. Others can argue that there is no discrimination in our justice system. Still others can argue that
the use of a DNA database will help erase discrimination in the justice system.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: What causes people to commit crimes? How could our justice and law enforcement
system be considered biased? How could the search for a genetic cause of crime discriminate against those not
in power? How can personal wealth influence whether a person is caught, convicted, or imprisoned for a crime?
8. SOCIOLOGIST
UNIVERSITY
“With poverty, crime can be seen as a way to make a living. If it’s the only job you get offered, you take it. The
problem is social, not genetic. Historically, the poorest people are also the most criminal. But who are these poor
people? At one time, they were the Irish; then the Italians; then the Jews; then African-Americans, the Latinos,
the Southeast Asians. If we were to keep a running list of the genetic or ethnic groups accused of crimes, every
minority would be on it at one time or another.”
SUMMARY: Crime is caused by poverty and social circumstances, not genetics.
DISCUSSION: Discuss the Sociologist’s arguments. Consider how poverty can affect crime, people’s perception
of crime, and how crime is combated. Students can research the history of how poverty and discrimination have
led to the perception of entire populations and nationalities as being “criminal.” Students can argue that crime will
continue to be a problem in our society until economic opportunities are available to all citizens. Others can argue
that everyone knows right from wrong and there is no excuse to commit a crime.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: How can poverty cause crime? What ethnic groups have been considered “criminal” in the
United States? When were each of these groups considered criminal? How does society view each of these
ethnic groups today? How and why has this changed?
9. TECHNOLOGY ADVOCATE
HOME OFFICE
“When we can identify people with the gene for criminality, we will...discourage them from having children. Gradually, society will become criminal- and crime-free. Now, this alone should justify the Human Genome Project.”
SUMMARY: Society can discourage people with genes for criminality from having children. This will eradicate
crime from the gene pool.
DISCUSSION: Discuss the Technology Advocate’s opinions. Note that this is a strong eugenics position. One
biological reality is that even if you could absolutely identify and control the reproduction of people with a given
undesirable gene, it would take dozens or hundreds of generations to alter the frequency of the gene in the
population. Some students can argue that the plan is great. Others can argue that it is too simplistic because
it assumes that there is a single genetic cause for crime. These students can list several factors that influence the
development of criminals; it would be impossible to analyze or predict all cases. Still other students can argue that
the plan is a gross violation of civil liberties; society has no right to “discourage” people from having children.
Discouragement could lead to highly authoritarian behaviors on the part of our government.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: How could research into the genetic causes of crime eradicate crime from our society
permanently? How might this plan be affected if several genes, or a combination of genes and societal factors,
played a role in producing a criminal? How would society “discourage” people with criminal genes from having
children? What ethical issues are involved?
10. PSYCHOLOGIST
PRIVATE OFFICE
“We’ve established a genetic connection to behavior. Genes are related to alcoholism, drug addiction, aggressive
behavior. The environmental circumstances of a person’s upbringing are important, but the evidence shows that
some people tend to engage in criminal behavior. We want to be able to identify them so we can council, educate,
treat them. We can make sure that they get a job and avoid temptation. If a person knew that he had criminal
tendencies, he could seek and receive the proper treatment.”
SUMMARY: There is a genetic connection to behavior; research into the genetic cause of criminality can help
reduce crime. Criminality could be treated as a disease.
DISCUSSION: Discuss the connections among genetics, environment, and behavior. Consider how identifying
the genetic cause of criminality could help potential criminals avoid crime. See other Resources for more
information about connections between genetics and behavior. Some students can argue that the Psychologist’s
position supports using DNA testing as a method for identifying and treating criminals. Others may suggest that
even if it is effective, DNA testing should be done only on a volunteer basis. Others may argue that the
Psychologist is ignoring any societal and economic causes of crime. In addition, treating crime as a disease
could raise serious civil rights questions: Should a person with a criminal gene be required to undergo treatment?
FOCUS QUESTIONS: What evidence is there for a genetic connection to behavior? How do genetics and
environment play a role in behavior? How do genetics and environment play a role in criminal behavior? What are
the implications for treating criminality as a disease? What are the implications for treating all persons with a
criminal gene as if they were sick? If you had a child with a gene that might encourage criminal behavior, what
would you do? How would you change how you raised the child?
11. LEGISLATIVE PROPOSAL
“NATIONAL DATABASE FOR CRIMINAL DNA”
Whereas, crime has become the number one problem affecting all Americans and, Whereas, a majority of crimes
are committed by repeat offenders who often escape prosecution due to legal technicalities and, Whereas, lawabiding citizens have the constitutional right to defend themselves against criminals and be protected by the legal
system, Let there be established a national database of unique genetic information of all criminals. Blood samples
will be taken of all criminals at arraignment. Their DNA will be tested for a set of 23 genetic polymorphisms that
will create a unique identifying signature to be encoded numerically into a centralized databank to be
administered by the FBI. The databank will be used as follows:
1. Law-enforcement officers will immediately run DNA tests on any suspect’s blood sample and cross-check against the
central database to determine whether the person matches any known criminal entry and/or is wanted for other crimes.
2. Employers can cross-check new employees to verify their criminal record.
3. Researchers can access the information to investigate the genetic basis of crime. Genetic markers for criminality can
be used for screening and treatment of pre-criminals.
4. The state may elect to take samples from all newborns and any routine medical tests to add to the databank to help
locate missing children and delinquent parents.
SUMMARY: This law describes the DNA database and states that it could be used by law enforcement officers,
employers, and researchers searching for a genetic cause of crime.
DISCUSSION: Discuss the law, its potential benefits, and its possible drawbacks. Some students can argue that
parts of the law are good, such as using DNA tests at crime sites, but that other parts should be dropped, such as
allowing employers to cross-check applicants before hiring.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: How could a DNA database be used? What uses of the DNA database do you agree
with? Why? What uses do you disagree with? Why? How could uses of the database be limited?
REFERENCE: Sherman, Rorie. “Controls Proposed for DNA Labs; Critics Decry FBI Role,”National Law Journal 15, no.33
(19 April 1993).
12. POLICE PROCEEDINGS “DNA FINGERPRINTING”
DNA fingerprinting enables investigators to compare the DNA of a crime suspect with DNA taken from samples of
blood, semen, or other human tissue found at a crime scene. To obtain a DNA fingerprint, each sample is treated
to extract the DNA. The DNA is put in a solution with enzymes, called “restriction enzymes,” that snip the DNA
into small fragments. The length of these fragments varies from person to person. This variation is called
“restriction fragment polymorphism” (from the Greek words poly meaning “many” and morphe meaning “shape”
or “form”). Investigators then use DNA probes that bind to and identify several “target” fragments. The length of
these target fragments are known to vary from person to person. Then they compare the fragments from the
crime scene sample to those of the suspect. If they match, experts say that the odds can be as high as a million
to one that the DNA is the same.
SUMMARY: DNA is analyzed by cutting it into small fragments. The length of these fragments varies from
individual to individual.
DISCUSSION: Use this material to discuss & understand the use of DNA for identification purposes. Note the
claim that the odds of finding a false match can be as high as a million to one. Note also that there is a difference
between fingerprinting for identification, in which a few distinctive DNA sequences are tested for and compared, &
complete sequencing of the human genome, which is an ongoing 10-year, multibillion-dollar effort. If a particular
gene for crime were discovered & sequenced, a simple screening test could be devised & used on the whole
population.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: How is DNA used to identify criminals? How could a DNA database make identification
more effective and efficient? What are the odds of finding a false match? Do those odds justify using DNA
evidence in court?
REFERENCES: Annas, G. J.“DNA Fingerprinting in the Twilight Zone,”Hastings Center Report 20, no.2 (March/April 1990).
Neufeld, P.J., and N. Colman. “When Science Takes the Witness Stand,” Scientific American 262, no.5 (May 1990).
13.
AN EYE ON LAW ENFORCEMENT MAGAZINE “DNA FINGERPRINTING UNRELIABLE”
Proponents of DNA fingerprinting say that the odds that DNA from two different individuals will match — as long
as they are not identical twins — are less than one in a million. But this claim is based on statistical models that
assume people get married and have children at random — in other words, that our DNA is being randomly
shuffled through the population. But people do not marry randomly. They tend to marry people of the same
regional, ethnic, religious, and racial backgrounds. As a result, people from groups where intermarriage is more
common are more likely to share DNA fingerprints than DNA fingerprinting advocates like to admit. But the
biggest problem with DNA fingerprinting is lab error. Small variations in lab technique can yield very different
results. DNA fingerprinting may be reliable in theory, but not in the real world.
SUMMARY: DNA identification is not as accurate as claimed.
DISCUSSION: Discuss the possibility that DNA identification is not as accurate as is claimed. Note how the two
factors mentioned in this Article can influence the reliability of DNA evidence. Have students discuss and
determine how accurate DNA identification must be to be considered reliable or useful in court (1 in 100, 1 in 500,
1 in 1,000, 1 in 50,000, and so on). Some students can argue that DNA identification should not be used in court
unless there is no chance for error; scientific evidence has an air of authority that can overwhelm a jury.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: How can DNA identification be inaccurate? How accurate must DNA identification be
before it is considered reliable? Should DNA identification be used in court? Why or why not?
REFERENCE: Beardsley, Tim. “Pointing Fingers: DNA Identification Is Called into Question,” Scientific American 266, no.3
(March 1992).
14.
PLAINVIEW COURIER-TELEGRAM NEWSPAPER “DNA EVIDENCE SWAYS JURY”
After three days of deliberation, a jury of seven women and five men has found a defendant guilty of two counts of
first-degree murder in the brutal hatchet slaying of his girlfriend and her mother. The jurors said the DNA evidence
linking the defendant to the scene convinced them of his guilt despite testimony by two of his friends placing him
miles from the scene at the time of the murder. “The DNA tests showed that the skin found under the girlfriend’s
fingernails was his,” said jury forewoman. “We figured his friends were lying to save his neck.” The defense
attorney called the verdict a travesty of justice and said he would appeal. “DNA fingerprints are based on bad
science. They should never have been allowed to be entered into evidence.”
SUMMARY: DNA evidence is being used in courts to convict people accused of crimes.
DISCUSSION: Discuss the use of DNA evidence in court. Some students can argue that DNA evidence should
be used because DNA can’t lie. Others can argue that DNA evidence is unreliable and should never be the basis
for a conviction. Students should refer to other Resources for more information about the use of DNA information
in court.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: How can DNA information be used to convict people of crimes? Should DNA evidence be
admitted in court? Why or why not? Should scientists be on hand to explain the DNA evidence to jurors? Why or
why not? Is DNA evidence alone enough to convict a person of a crime? Why or why not?
REFERENCE:
Hamilton, Denise. “Woman Guilty of Murder in State’s First Case Based on Genetic Evidence,” Los Angeles Times, 14
September 1989.
15.
THE DAILY JOURNAL NEWSPAPER “DNA CONVICTION OVERTURNED”
A U.S. District Court Judge today overturned the conviction of a 29-year-old drifter who had been found guilty of
the abduction, rape, and murder of a college coed on the grounds that police had not used sufficient safeguards
to prevent contamination of blood samples used in DNA tests that had linked the defendant to the crime. “If DNA
evidence is to have any validity,” Judge Shaun McCarthy wrote in his opinion, “the techniques of the sample
collection, the integrity of the chain of custody, and the reliability of the labs conducting the tests must meet the
most exacting standards. In this case, the court finds, they did not do so.” McCarthy said he was most troubled by
the failure of police lab technicians to carefully document the steps they took to guarantee that the samples were
free of contamination. “The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) used in this case can magnify more than a millionfold any DNA found in a sample. This court is concerned that DNA taken from the defendant after his arrest may
have been allowed to contaminate samples taken from the crime scene,” McCarthy wrote, “I, therefore, have no
choice but to order the immediate release of the defendant.”
SUMMARY: DNA evidence can be contaminated unless proper techniques are used in collection, analysis, and
storage. This can destroy the reliability of the sample.
DISCUSSION: Discuss the possibility of contamination during collection, analysis, and storage of DNA evidence.
Some students can argue that this possibility is reason enough not to use DNA evidence in court. Others can
argue that DNA identification is a new technique, with some bugs, but that law-enforcement officers and lab
scientists will quickly work out the problems.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: How can DNA evidence become contaminated? Should DNA evidence be admitted in
court? Why or why not? Should scientists be on hand to explain the DNA evidence to jurors? Why or why not? Is
DNA evidence alone enough to convict a person of a crime? Why or why not?
REFERENCE: Neufeld, P.J., and N. Colman. “When Science Takes the Stand,” Scientific American 262, no.5 (May 1990).
16. FORESTVILLE COURIER NEWSPAPER “DNA EVIDENCE FREES INNOCENT MAN”
A 31-year-old nurse’s aide will be released from jail after DNA fingerprint tests revealed that he could not have
been the man who raped a local woman earlier this year. The man allegedly rushed into the woman’s house when
she opened a sliding glass door to let her cat out. The rape victim later picked him out of a police lineup. Since his
arrest, the man has consistently denied that he was guilty & agreed to delay his trial so that the DNA test could be
conducted.
SUMMARY: DNA information was used to release a man from jail who had been convicted of rape.
DISCUSSION: Discuss how DNA information can be used to protect people wrongly accused of crime. Some
students can argue that this is one reason to support the DNA database. Others can argue that errors could
cause guilty people to be released, too.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: How can DNA information be used to protect people wrongly accused of crime? In what
types of crime could this information be relevant?
REFERENCE: Shapiro, Eben. “Coleman is Exonerated,” Wall Street Journal, 30 March 1994.
17. SHERLOCK HOLMES GAZETTE MAGAZINE “FINGERPRINTING: THE CRIME FIGHTER’S TOOL”
As early as the 1600s, anatomists studied the intricate patterns of the ridges found on the human hand, but it
wasn’t until the late 1800s that fingerprints were used for identification. This idea was promoted by two
Englishmen who noted that every person’s fingerprints seemed to be unique. They demonstrated that oils and
moisture from the hand left durable prints on objects that could be recovered and used for identification. In 1900,
Sir Edward Henry of Britain’s Scotland Yard set up the first system of fingerprint classification, allowing
investigators to match fingerprints found at a crime scene with fingerprints kept on file. The new tool
revolutionized criminal investigation. Shortly thereafter, the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) set up its
own fingerprint division. Today, the FBI has the fingerprints of more than 71 million people in its files.
SUMMARY: A history of traditional fingerprinting techniques and their use in law enforcement.
DISCUSSION: Use this material to illuminate and discuss the history of identification databases and their uses
and abuses. Compare and contrast the reliability and civil right concerns of traditional fingerprinting and DNA
identification. Some students can argue that DNA identification, like fingerprinting, is a valuable tool in the fight
against crime and should be accepted in courts. Others can note that DNA identification techniques have more
potential for misuse than fingerprinting because the DNA sample contains much more information than a
fingerprint. They can also argue that there is a fundamental difference between dusting for prints and
withdrawing blood from a crime suspect; taking blood or other tissue from an unconvicted person is a violation of
civil rights and an “unreasonable search and seizure.”
FOCUS QUESTIONS: How have fingerprinting techniques been used by law enforcement? How are
fingerprinting and DNA identification comparable? What civil rights issues concern DNA identification but not
fingerprinting? How could DNA information be misused?
REFERENCE: Dilworthy, Donald C., ed. Identification Wanted: Development of the American Criminal Identification System,
1893-1943, Gaithersburg, MD.: International Assn. of Chiefs of Police, Police Management & Operations Divisions, 1977.
18. PERSONAL FREEDOM MAGAZINE
“NATIONAL ID CARD: A THREAT TO LIBERTY”
Many Americans cannot see why any law-abiding citizen would be against a national identification card. Two reasons
stand tall. One based on principle, the other experience. First, this country was founded on the idea that the power of
the government shall be limited in order to protect the freedom of the individual. The Founding Fathers knew that the
more someone knows about you, the more power they will have to interfere with your life. Therefore, the Constitution
guarantees that you and I have the right to privacy. Second, government officials un-doubtedly will use the ID cards to
harass people whose political beliefs they do not like. In the past, government officials have used their power to wiretap
to sabotage efforts of union organizers, civil rights workers, antiwar protestors, & other opponents of govt. policies.
SUMMARY: National identification cards could threaten individual privacy.
DISCUSSION: Use this material to discuss issues of information access and privacy. Note that national
identification cards could easily contain information gathered from DNA samples. Consider ways in which this
information could be misused or abused. Some students can argue that the potential for misusing this information
is so great (employment screening, insurance screening, criminality screening, home mortgage screening,
and so on) that national identification cards should never be issued. They can note that social security cards are
now used for myriad reasons not intended by the designers of the program. Others can argue that the
government can be trusted to not abuse the information; people with nothing to hide have nothing to fear from
national identification cards or the use of DNA samples. Still others can suggest that the information put on
national ID cards could be limited.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: How could national identification cards affect privacy issues? How has the use of social
security cards expanded since their development? What information could be placed on a national identification
card? How could such cards be used, misused, or abused? How could their contents or use be controlled or
limited?
REFERENCE: Forbes, Jr.,Malcolm S. “1984 Updated,” Forbes 154, no.9 (17. October 1994).
19.
SUNDAE! MAGAZINE “THE UNIVERSAL ID CARD: I CAN’T WAIT FOR IT!”
I don’t know about you, but I have more plastic cards in my purse than I know what to do with. I have credit cards,
bank cards, club membership cards, health insurance cards, long-distance phone cards, cards for this, and cards
for that. Happily, relief is in sight: electronic information specialists say computer information technology
will soon allow us to store hundreds of pages of information on a magnetic strip smaller than a postage stamp on
one convenient card. Everything you need would be stored in the card’s digital memory: driver’s license, picture,
social security number, bank account that updates every time you use an automatic teller machine, health
insurance number, and medical history, including blood type, DNA profile, and the results of important tests....
SUMMARY: An identification card that replaces all the other cards people have to carry in their purse or wallet
would be incredibly convenient.
DISCUSSION: Discuss the conveniences promised by a single card that could replace all the cards in a person’s
wallet or purse. Consider possible uses, misuses, and abuses.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: How could a single identification card simplify life? How could the Internet be used to
facilitate the use of a single identification card? How could such cards be used, abused, or misused?
20.
PRISONERS’ RIGHTS ORGANIZATION PAMPHLET “YOUR GUIDE TO DNA FINGERPRINTING”
DNA fingerprinting laws vary from state to state. In some states, you must provide a blood sample for DNA
analysis only if you are convicted of a sex-related felony such as rape or sexual assault; in other states, you can
be required to provide a sample for a wide range of crimes. The rules governing when you must supply the blood
sample also vary. In some jurisdictions, a sample is collected once you have been sentenced. In other states,
sample collection is not allowed until you have exhausted all your appeals. In some states, if a sample is collected
from you and your conviction is later overturned, you can request that your file by expunged from government
DNA databases.
SUMMARY: Laws concerning DNA samples and their use vary from state to state.
DISCUSSION: Use this material to discuss DNA sample collection on a national level.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: How do laws concerning DNA sample collection vary? When are samples taken? When
can samples be removed from DNA databases? What other issues are raised by DNA fingerprinting?
REFERENCE:
Billings, Paul R., ed. DNA on Trial: Genetic Identification and Criminal Justice, Plainview, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
Press, 1992.
21.
POPULAR NEWSWEEKLY MAGAZINE “THE STAGGERING COST OF CRIME”
When we total the cost of crime, we cannot stop at just the cost of valuables stolen. The total must include money
spent to prevent and combat crime and to repair the damage and pain crime causes. The bill must include the
salaries, pensions, health plans, and training costs of police, security guards, lawyers, prison staff, counselors,
judges, and court clerks. We must also add in money spent on security equipment — from the locks on our doors
to the armored cars that banks use to transfer funds. Don’t forget the losses from shoplifting, employee pilfering,
embezzlement, and extortion. Finally, we include the medical expenses and loss of income caused by injury and
death from violent crime. When the final bill is totaled, the cost of crime in the United States reaches about $675
billion per year.
SUMMARY: Crime has a tremendous impact on our economy.
DISCUSSION: Use this article to discuss the various costs associated with crime. Discuss ways in which crime
can be measured in economic terms. Some students can argue that these costs are so great that they justify
developing both a DNA database and research into the genetic causes of crime. Others may argue for separating
the two uses for such a database.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: How much does crime cost our society? What specific costs are associated with crime?
What other economic costs of crime are there? What are some non-economic ways in which crime affects
society?
REFERENCE: “The Cost of Crime,” U.S. News & World Report 116 no.2 (17 January 1994).
22.
CRIMINOLOGY TODAY MAGAZINE “U.S. STERILIZATION OF MENTAL DEFECTIVES”
In the 1930s, 27 states had laws allowing the sterilization of “mental defectives.” The intention of the laws was to
keep people with genetic defects that caused feeblemindedness and criminal behavior from having children.
Among those who qualified for treatment were the insane, the mentally retarded, habitual criminals, and sexual
deviants. California, which had the nation’s most active program, sterilized nearly 10,000 people by 1935.
SUMMARY: The United States has a history of sterilizing citizens for “mental defects” and “criminal behavior.”
DISCUSSION: Discuss the issues raised in this article. Consider how rational laws can be bent and stretched to
cover these cases. How does our system correct these abuses? Note the history of more blatant eugenic laws;
how does the history of eugenics in the United States compare to other countries? How does it differ? Some
students may argue that present-day eugenics programs are good for society and will be much more effective due
to the progress science has made since the 1930s. Others can argue that research into genetic causes of
criminality will lead to sterilization programs such as these; it is wrong to forcibly sterilize people. Such laws could
be applied arbitrarily and in a discriminatory fashion. Such research could lead to atrocities.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: What is the history of involuntary sterilization in the United States? How could these
sterilization laws be used to discriminate? How should this history be taken into account?
REFERENCE:
Reilly, Philip. The Surgical Solution: A History of Involuntary Sterilization in the United States. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
University Press, 1991.
23. PHILOSOPHY MAGAZINE
“DATA INDICATES STORKS BRING BABIES”
If two things always seem to occur together—first A, then B—we might assume that A causes B. But would we be
right? What if a third phenomenon (C) causes both A and B? European researchers once noted that at the same
time there was a rise in the number of rooftop stork nests (A), there was a parallel rise in the birth rate (B). This
correlation, they noted, strongly supported the long-held hypothesis that storks brought babies to Earth. Skeptics
offered another hypothesis (C): more young people were starting families; therefore, there were (A) more children
being born and (B) more new homes being built, providing more rooftops on which storks could build nests.
SUMMARY: Causality cannot always be inferred from coincidence.
DISCUSSION: Use this material to discuss simplistic approaches to cause and effect and to deductive logic.
Apply and extend this approach to debate the causes of crime. Some students can argue that while many
inmates in American prisons have certain genes (the genes for black skin pigmentation, for example) it does not
follow that those genes cause them to commit crimes. The real cause is lack of economic opportunity and societywide discrimination. Others can use the same argument to claim that poverty does not cause crime. They can
note that not all poor people commit crimes.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: How can an event incorrectly be thought to cause another event? How does this relate to
the attempt to find causes of crime?
REFERENCE:
Piaget, Jean, and R. Garcia. Understanding Causality, trans. by Donald and Marguerite Miles. New York: Norton, 1974.
24. DAILY REAL WORLD NEWSPAPER “GENES FORCED ME TO KILL!”
A man sentenced to death for murdering a pizza store manager has appealed his conviction to the state Supreme
Court, claiming he is not guilty because he inherited genes that predisposed him to crime. The man was raised in
a well-to-do family but had uncles, aunts, and cousins who had been involved in a wide variety of violent crime.
Lawyers arguing his appeal contend that he cannot be held totally responsible for his actions. In fact, the man
could be considered a victim of a genetic disease, they argued. The lawyers cited a recent study of a Dutch family
that found that the men inherited a genetic predisposition for aggression. Legal experts say if more genes linked
to criminal behavior are found, it is likely that many criminals will base legal defenses on genetic predisposition
claims.
SUMMARY: A man convicted of murder claimed that he was not guilty because his genes forced him to kill.
DISCUSSION: Discuss this case in particular and genetic-based legal defenses in general. Consider how this
argument is supported by the idea that genes are an important determining factor for crime. Some students can
argue that researching the genetic causes of crime will inevitably bring into question the notion of free will and
allow all criminals to claim that they are innocent because they were genetically predisposed to crime. Other
students can argue that genetic information should be used for convicting criminals but not for legal defenses.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: What did this convicted murderer claim? Why should such appeals be allowed or
disallowed? How does research into genetic causes of behavior affect the concept of free will?
REFERENCE: Felsenthal, Edward.“Man’s Genes Made Him Kill,His Lawyers Claim,”Wall Street Journal, 15 November 1994.
25. POPULAR MEDICINE MAGAZINE “MAN VS. NATURE” Steve Greenblatt
Studies attempting to link behavior and genetic inheritance invite bigotry and discrimination. If we accept that
individuals from one ethnic or racial group act the way they do because of their genes, we are saying that they
behave the way they do because it is their nature. Once we take that position, we are free of any social
responsibility to help these people. If they are unemployed, it is their nature to be unemployed. If they are poor, it
is their nature to be poor. If they are uneducated, it is their nature to be uneducated. And pity the individual from
one of these groups who tries to better his or her social circumstances—such an effort is, well, unnatural.
SUMMARY: Claiming that behavior is patterned by genetics allows for more bigotry and discrimination on the
grounds that people in unfortunate circumstances are there because of their genes.
DISCUSSION: Discuss this article. Consider the relationship between personal action and societal needs and
how we assign responsibility for actions. How does blaming or crediting genetics for behavior relieve a society of
the duty to help individuals in unfortunate circumstances? Students can use this article to consider a possible side
effect of believing that genetics influences and causes crime.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: How can the claim that genes determine behavior lead to a refusal to help people in
unfortunate situations? How does the claim that genes determine behavior influence the free will debate? Should
social concerns like this influence the subjects scientists study? Why or why not?
REFERENCE: Greenspan, P. S. “Free Will and the Genome Project,” Philosophy & Public Affairs 22, no.l (Winter 1993).
26. READER’S DIGRESS MAGAZINE
“A BETTER WORLD”
Wouldn’t it be nice if we knew that everyone was good? If there were some way we could be sure that every
person we met on the street or worked with at the office was gentle and kind — that everyone could be trusted?
The world would be made over, and we would have a freedom that today we can hardly imagine. We could live
our days without fear and sleep at night in peace with doors unlocked.
SUMMARY: It would be great to live in a world where everyone was good.
DISCUSSION: Discuss this Article’s arguments. What is good? Is good an absolute or a relative moral description? Who determines what is good? What is the range between good and bad? Is it absolute or relative?
Some students can argue that research into genetic causes of behavior will ensure that all people are nice &good.
Others may agree that it would be great if everyone was nice but object to the use of eugenics in general. Still
others can argue that “good” is a subjective moral judgment. One person’s artist may be another’s social deviant.
FOCUS QUESTIONS:
What would it be like to live in a world where everyone was nice? What is “nice?” What is “good?” Who decides?
How could research into the genetic causes of behavior help bring this kind of world about? What ethical issues
are involved?
REFERENCE: Burgess, Anthony. A Clockwork Orange. New York: Ballantine Books, 1972.
27. POPULAR CRIMINOLOGY MAGAZINE
“CRIME GENE THEORY FAILS”
In the 1960s, scientists thought they had evidence of a genetic predisposition for crime. Researchers discovered
that some men were born with two Y chromosomes. Instead of being XY males, they were XYY. They speculated
that since men tend to be more aggressive and more likely to be involved in crime, XYY men, with an extra dose
of maleness, might tend to have a “criminal mentality.” To confirm this theory, researchers studied men
incarcerated in high-security mental institutions and found that a surprisingly high proportion of them were indeed
XYY. Soon, however, the theory collapsed. Most of the incarcerated XYY men had never committed crimes of
violence. When researchers studied men in the general population who had XYY, they found that the vast
majority were good citizens, living normal, law-abiding lives.
SUMMARY: In this real-life story, scientists thought that they had identified individuals whose genes predisposed
them for crime; later, they found out they were wrong.
DISCUSSION: Discuss the research into XYY males and criminality. Consider the flaws in this research. What
might be some negative results of this research? Some students can cite this research to argue against research
into the genetic causes of criminality. Others may suggest that scientists have learned their lesson and will be
more careful in the future.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: Why did scientists believe that XYY men were genetically predisposed to violence? What
was wrong with their theory?
REFERENCE: Hubbard, Ruth, and Elijah Wald. Exploding the Gene Myth, Boston: Beacon Press, 1993.
28.
SCIENCE NOW! MAGAZINE “SCHIZOPHRENIA AND THE FAMILY”
For years, psychoanalysts have been trying to decide what child-rearing mistakes cause a child to grow up to be a
schizophrenic. New research, however, indicates that how you raise your child makes little difference. The problem is in
the genes. The evidence: schizophrenia runs in families. Ten percent of a schizophrenic’s first-degree blood relatives
end up with the disease as well. If both parents are schizophrenic, the risk that the child will inherit the disease jumps
higher. In fact, almost half the children of a schizophrenic couple eventually become schizophrenic. Studies on twins
provide more evidence: a fraternal twin of a schizophrenic shares a 10 percent risk with other brothers and sisters, but
an identical twin of a schizophrenic has a 40 to 50 percent chance of developing the disease. What about the effects of
schizophrenia on family life? A child with no family history of schizophrenia who is adopted into a family with a history of
schizophrenia is no more likely to develop the disease than one adopted by a normal family. But a child from a family
with a history of schizophrenia adopted by a normal family continues to carry an increased risk of developing the
disease. Which genes carry the disease remains unknown....
SUMMARY: There is evidence that schizophrenia is at least partially caused by genetic factors.
DISCUSSION: Discuss the connection between schizophrenia and genetics. Consider how this information could
apply to genetic links to criminality. Some students can argue that since genetics can influence schizophrenic
behavior, it can also influence criminal behavior. Other students can argue that crime is influenced by social
forces. Besides, the stigma of being unfairly deemed “schizophrenic” is not as harmful as being labeled “criminal.”
FOCUS QUESTIONS: How might genetics play a role in schizophrenia? What other behaviors might be
influenced by genetics? How is schizophrenia different than criminality? How is it the same?
REFERENCE: Pierce, Benjamin A. Family Genetic Sourcebook. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1990.
29. POPULAR MEDICINE MAGAZINE
“GENE FOR AGGRESSION FOUND”
Dutch researchers report that they have identified a gene linked to aggression. The gene was found to run in a
family in which many of the men seemed to have an inherited tendency to engage in violence. The researchers
suspect that the gene normally produces an enzyme called a monoamine oxidase (MAO). In normal people, MAO
breaks down three neurotransmitters found in the brain. All three of these neurotransmitters help regulate a
person’s mood and alertness. One of the neurotransmitters, norepinephrine, is involved in stimulating the body’s
reaction to danger, a reaction called “the fight or flight response.” The researchers think that men with the
abnormal MAO gene develop high levels of these three neurotransmitters in their brains. As a result, they are
easily provoked to anger and violence.
SUMMARY: In this real-life case, researchers identified a gene that causes aggressive and violent behavior.
DISCUSSION: Discuss the genetic cause for aggressiveness and violence in this Dutch family. What could be
some logical conclusions from this study? What could be some flaws in or limitations of this study? Some
students can argue that if genes can cause people to be aggressive and violent, researching the genetic cause of
crime is warranted; much crime — at least the crime we are most fearful of — is violent and aggressive. Others
can argue that crime is influenced by social factors; this case might be a fluke or the study might be flawed.
Perhaps the whole family was violent because of behavior patterns passed on within the family, or perhaps every
generation was subjected to similar negative environmental or social pressures.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: What was found in this Dutch family? How is this behavior related to criminality? How is it
different? What might be some flaws in this study?
REFERENCE:
Richardson, Sarah. “A Violence in the Blood,” Discover 14, no.10 (October 1993).
30.
POPULAR CRIMINOLOGY MAGAZINE “DNA FINGERPRINTS BASED ON BAD SCIENCE”
When police say a suspect’s DNA fingerprint matches a sample from a crime scene, they cannot say for certain that the
blood or other tissue came from the suspect. All they truthfully can say is that it is likely that it came from the suspect —
that the odds that the blood came from another person are one in a million. In the U.S., these odds are based on
calculations that assume that there are three main genetically homogeneous populations in the country: whites, blacks,
& Hispanics. Critics of DNA fingerprinting say this assumption is fatally flawed. Under this system, people called
Hispanics include: Europeans from Spain, Mestizos from Mexico, Mayans from Guatemala, & Dominicans of African
descent — hardly a genetically homogenous population.
SUMMARY: The odds that a DNA sample will provide a false match are higher than claimed because of the way
law-enforcement officials calculate their data.
DISCUSSION: Discuss the use of three hypothetical populations as a basis for developing the odds of a false
match with a DNA sample. Note that each category (white, black, and Hispanic) is arbitrary. Some students may
suggest that each population should be broken down into smaller categories. Others may note that individuals
often have children with people from other categories.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: What are the three reference populations used by U.S. law enforcement officials for DNA
identification? What could be wrong with this way of defining categories? How does this affect the DNA
identification?
REFERENCE:
Billings, Paul R., ed. DNA on Trial: Genetic Identification and Criminal Justice,. Plainview, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
Press, 1992.
31. WORLD REVIEW NEWSPAPER “GENES AND CRIME CONFERENCE SPARKS PROTESTS”
In 1992, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) announced that it would sponsor a conference titled “The Genetic
Factors in Crime: Findings, Uses, and Implications.” The conference was to look into evidence that some people
had genes that made them prone to violence and crime. The announcement sparked a storm of protest,
especially from African-American civil rights leaders. They argued that the roots of crime are poverty and racial
discrimination and charged that conference organizers, instead of confronting racism and injustice, were
proposing to label poor African-American children as genetic criminals to be feared and controlled. So loud was
the outcry, the meeting was postponed indefinitely.
SUMMARY: In this real-life event, the National Institutes of Health scheduled a conference devoted to the
genetic factors of crime. Protests caused the NIH to cancel the conference.
DISCUSSION: Discuss the NIH conference and the reasons it was canceled. Consider whether this cancellation
was justified. What might the response have been 10 years earlier? Ten years from now? Some students can
argue that the conference should have been held and that scientists should not be prevented from studying
legitimate fields due to social pressures. Other students can argue that research into the genetic causes of crime
is misguided and discriminatory. The real causes of crime are poverty and social bias. This research could cause
African-Americans and members of other “suspect” ethnic groups to feel betrayed by their own government.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: What was the NIH conference’s area of intended study? Why was it canceled? What were
the protestors’ objections? How could this study help society? How could it hurt?
REFERENCE:
Horgan, John. “Genes and Crime, a U.S. Plan to Reduce Violence Rekindles an Old Controversy,” Scientific American 266,
no.2 (February 1992).
32. POPULAR THEOLOGMAGAZINE “BREAKING THE LAW IN GOOD CONSCIENCE”
Most major world religions and philosophical systems hold that an individual has the right, even the duty, to
disobey a law when that law is immoral. The Roman Catholic Church, for example, has held for many centuries
that in some cases war is justified and a Catholic has a duty to serve if his government calls upon him or her to
fight a “Just War.” But if a war is unjust, the Church maintains that an individual can morally oppose the conduct
of that war even if it means breaking the law…. …In the Nuremberg trials after World War II,Nazi defendants
argued that they could not be held responsible for their actions, which included killing innocent civilians in death
camps, because at the time they were obeying German law and ,following their legal superiors’ orders. The
Nuremberg court rejected this argument, establishing clearly for the first time that individuals have a legal duty to
disobey their national laws when those laws violate international moral standards.
SUMMARY:
There are historical and theological justifications for breaking moral and legal laws.
DISCUSSION: Discuss the range of moral and legal laws. Consider how these laws came into being and how
they help society. What things can cause people to challenge or ignore these laws? How do these laws change?
Some students can cite this Article to argue that the notion of crime is arbitrary and contextual. What may be a
crime in one circumstance is not a crime in another. Research into genetic causes of crime is misguided because
the notion of crime is a social construct that changes from time to time, situation to situation, & society to society.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: When might a religion or society permit the killing of another human being? When is
killing not sanctioned? What were the Nuremberg trials? Who develops laws? How can laws change in different
times, circumstances, and societies? How do the concepts of right and wrong change?
REFERENCE:
Klofkowski, Alfons. The Nuremberg Principles and the Development of International Law. Waszawa, Poland: Zachodnia
Agencja Prasowa, 1966.
33. POPULAR HISTORY MAGAZINE “EUGENICS IN HISTORY”
The word “eugenics” was coined in 1883 by an upper-class Englishman, Francis Galton. The term means “well
born.” Galton said the human race could be improved by assuring that people with more “suitable” strains of blood
prevailed. His ideas quickly became popular in Britain and the United States. Eugenicists maintained that
heredity was responsible for such traits as “shiftlessness,” “criminality,” “pauperism”, and “feeblemindedness.”
These researchers discounted the effects of poverty, lack of education, childhood diseases, and poor nutrition on
people’s abilities. By the turn of the century, eugenics was endorsed by many scientists and politicians as way to
reduce crime and poverty. By 1931, many U.S. states had laws allowing the forced sterilization of people deemed
“insane” or “feebleminded.” By 1935, approximately 20,000 involuntary sterilizations were conducted in this
country. The Nazis used eugenic theories to justify the extermination of disabled people and others they
considered “inferior,” including Jews, Gypsies, homosexuals, and people of Slavic origin.
SUMMARY:
Many people have been sterilized involuntarily or killed in the name of eugenics.
DISCUSSION: Discuss the checkered past of eugenics. Note the subjective terms used to classify people
(“paupers,” “feebleminded”) and the lack of research into social, medical, and environmental causes for these
circumstances. Some students can argue that research into the genetic causes of crime will lead in the same
direction. Others may claim that scientists and societies have learned their lesson from their earlier mistakes.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: How was eugenics used in the United States? How was eugenics used in Nazi
Germany? What was wrong with the assumption made by early eugenicists? How would eugenics work today?
REFERENCE: Hubbard, Ruth, and Elijah Wald. Exploding the Gene Myth. Boston: Beacon Press, 1993.
34. ON OUR BACKS! NEWSPAPER/LETTER TO EDITOR “WE KNOW HOW GENES CAUSE VIOLENCE”
To the editor: Roughly half of all humans are born with a genetic disability that causes untold suffering. These
unfortunate souls lack one arm of the X chromosome, a condition called XY phenotype. All victims of this disease are
slow to mature. They have the highest rates of attention deficit disorder, dyslexia, and other learning disorders. As
children, they are aggressive, easily frustrated, and violence prone. Later in life, they are predisposed to drug and
alcohol abuse. They suffer from impaired judgment, often driving recklessly and engaging in thrill-seeking behavior that
endangers themselves and others. As adults, they commit the vast majority of burglaries, assaults, and rapes. In fact,
they are responsible for most homicidal violence. It’s time to start mandatory prenatal testing to screen for XY and
consider abortions of all fetuses with the condition.
SUMMARY: Males are genetically predisposed to violence and should be aborted before they are born.
DISCUSSION: Discuss the claims made in this article. Note that this letter is meant to be tongue-in-cheek but has
a serious point to make. Consider the many serious social problems associated with males. Students can argue
that this article shows the absurdity of the position. Others can concede that the human race would be better off
without males but that they are a necessary evil.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: What are some risk factors associated with males? Why should scientists attempt to rid
our population of males? Why shouldn’t they? How would humans reproduce without males? What environmental
factors might cause males in our society to exhibit these criminal behaviors? What satirical point is this article
making about searching for genetic causes for behavior?
REFERENCE: Hosken, Fran P. “Women,Men, and Violence,” WIN News 18, no.4 (Autumn 1992).
35.
YEARLY COST OF CRIME
SUMMARY:Crime costs the United States $674 billion a year.
DISCUSSION: Use these figures to discuss the impact crime has on our society. Students should also consider
the non-economic costs.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: How much does crime cost a year? What are some non-economic costs of crime?
REFERENCE: “The Cost of Crime,” U.S. News & World Report 116, no. 2 (17 January 1994).
36. CRIME STATISTICS BY COUNTRY/ PRISON POPULATION BY COUNTRY
SUMMARY: Crime statistics for the United States, Costa Rica, Denmark, and Yugoslavia, as well as prison populations
of United States and England and Wales.
DISCUSSION: Use these figures to illuminate the issue of crime in our society. Students should note that crimes rates
and prison populations are significantly higher in the United States than in the other countries shown. They should also
notice that the United States puts more and more people in prison each year.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: How do U.S. crime rates compare with those of other countries? How does the U.S. prison
population compare with those of England and Wales? What is the relationship between crime and imprisonment? Why
might crime or imprisonment rates vary from country to country?
REFERENCES: U.S. Department of Justice. “International Crime Rates, ”Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report
U.S. Department of Justice. “Profile of Inmates in the United States and in England and Wales, 1991,”Bureau of Justice
Statistics, (800) 732-3277.
37.
RACE OR ETHNICITY OF STATE PRISON INMATES
SUMMARY: A disproportionally large percentage of prisoners in state prisons are black or Hispanic.
DISCUSSION: Study and discuss these figures. Some students can argue that the U.S. justice system, and U.S.
society in general, is biased against minorities. Others may argue that if more minorities are in prison, it must be
because minorities commit more crimes.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: What is the racial breakdown in our state prisons? How can this imbalance be explained?
REFERENCE:
U.S. Department of Justice.“Profile of Inmates in the United States and in England and Wales, 1991,”Bureau of
Justice Statistics, (800) 732-3277.
38.
INCOME OF STATE PRISON INMATES BEFORE ARREST
SUMMARY: 70 percent of state prison inmates had an annual income of less than $15,000 before their arrest.
DISCUSSION: Use these figures to discuss the issues surrounding crime and economic opportunity in our
society.
FOCUS QUESTIONS: How wealthy are most state prison inmates before their arrest? How can economics
influence the crime rate? How might this differ in other countries?
REFERENCE:
U.S. Department of Justice.“Profile of Inmates in the United States and in England and Wales, 1991,”Bureau of Justice
Statistics, (800) 732- 3277.
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