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BIO 101 – Exam #2 Study Guide Chromatin – strands of DNA in nucleus during Interphase Sister chromatids = two half’s of a chromosome Chromatids = 2x # of chromosomes / one half of a replicated chromosome Chromosome = coiled up DNA that passes genes on the DNA to daughter cells when the cell divides a. most visible during mitosis/meiosis 5) Centromere – middle of a sister chromatid i. Divides at onset of Anaphase in Mitosis and Anaphase II in Meiosis 6) Spindle fibers – what pull chromosomes apart during cell division 7) Cleavage furrow – bit of cleavage that animal cells make when dividing 8) Diploid (2n) – cell containing 2 homologous sets of chromosomes, one from each parent i. Reproduces sexually ii. What all cells have except egg + sperm iii. Double the haploid 9) Haploid (n) – half the Diploid # of genes, is the egg + sperm cells 10) Dyad = 2 chromatid 11) Tetrad = 4 chromatid (Haploid #) 12) Crossing over – when chromosomes exchange segments to rearrange genetic information during Prophase I of Meiosis 13) Homologous chromosomes – 2 chromosomes making up matched pair in a diploid cell a. Same length, centromere position, and staining pattern b. Possess genes for same traits at corresponding loci c. 1 from father, 1 from mother 14) Autosomes – chromosome not involved in determining an organism’s sex 15) Sex chromosomes – determine organism’s sex 16) Gametes – reproductive cells (egg/sperm) 17) Chiasmata – microscopically visible site where crossing over has occurred between chromatids of homologous structures during Prophase I of Meiosis 18) Somatic cell – typical body cell 19) Karyotype – micrographs of the metaphase chromosomes of a cell (nucleus) 20) Karyokinesis – division of nucleus 21) Gametogenesis – creation of gametes within gonads 22) OOgenesis – creation of mature egg cells 23) Spermatogenesis – creation of sperm cells 24) Polar bodies – byproducts of primary/secondary oocyte at each point of meiotic division in oogenesis (not in spermatogenesis) 25) Girls are born with their eggs already made in Prophase I; puberty comes during Metaphase II 26) Prophase is longest phase of Meiosis 27) Klinefelters – XXY (when a male has an extra X chromosome) 28) Metafemale – XXX (when a female has an extra X chromosome) 29) Turners Syndrome – X0 (45 chromosomes in female, where they lack another X chromosome) 30) Not viable – Y0 31) Mitosis – growth/repair a. One diploid parent cell divides to form 2 genetically identical daughter cells b. Used for asexual reproduction in unicellular organisms c. Cell cycle = 90% Interphase, 10% Mitotic phase d. Interphase i. G1 – cell grows + carries out normal metabolism; organelles duplicate ii. S – DNA replication + chromosome duplication 1 1) 2) 3) 4) BIO 101 – Exam #2 Study Guide iii. G2 – construction of spindle apparatus; chromosomes condense; cell continues growing e. Prophase – nuclear envelope + nucleoli disappear i. Spindle fibers begin to form ii. Chromosomes begin to supercoil and are visible for 1st time iii. Centrosome head to poles of cell f. Metaphase i. Spindle fibers fully formed 1. Attached to all of the kinetochores ii. Centrosome are on polar sides of cell g. Anaphase i. Sister chromatids pulled apart at centromere by spindle fibers retracting, resulting in 1 member of each sister chromatid pair moving into a new cell h. Telophase i. 2 daughter cells have clear body ii. Spindle fibers start disappearing iii. Nucleoli reappears iv. Chromosomes uncoil i. Cytokinesis – division of the cell/cytoplasm to form 2 separate daughter cells i. Cleavage furrow forms 32) Meiosis – egg/sperm (sexual cell division) a. One parent cell (2n) divides to form 4 haploid daughter cells which are then processed into gametes b. Meiosis I – homologous chromosomes separate i. Interphase I – chromosomes duplicates each chromosome has 2 genetically identical sister chromatids ii. Prophase I – crossing over occurs tetrad forms as a result of synapsis iii. Metaphase I – spindle microtubules attached to a kinetochore iv. Anaphase I – sister chromatids remain attached homologous chromosomes separate toward 2 poles of cell v. Telophase I + Cytokenesis – cleavage furrow forms c. Meiosis II – sister chromatids separate during Anaphase II 33) Chemistry/Periodic Table of Elements a. Proton = positive charge, Electron = negative charge, Neutron = neutral charge b. # of rows = # of rings of electrons an element has c. Atomic # = # of protons d. Atomic weight = weight of atom’s protons & neutrons e. 1st ring holds 2 electrons max i. 2nd ring holds 8 electrons max ii. 3rd ring holds 18 electrons max iii. 4th ring holds 32 electrons max iv. Octet rule = outer ring of an atom holds 8 electrons or less f. Electrons are in electron cloud that surrounds nucleus of atom g. Protons & Neutrons are in the nucleus h. An atom is positively charged if it is missing 1 or more electrons, negatively charged if it has 1 or more electrons. i. Negatively atoms are attracted to positively charged atoms and vice versa i. Ions are a charged atom, positive or negative j. Isotopes are atoms with the same # of protons & electrons, but different # of neutrons. 2 BIO 101 – Exam #2 Study Guide i. Ex. Carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14 are 3 isotopes of Carbon with mass #’s 12, 13, and 14, respectively. Carbon’s atomic # is 6 meaning each carbon atom has 6 protons, thus they contain 6, 7, and 8 neutrons, respectively. k. ionic bond – chemical bond resulting from attraction between oppositely charged ions l. covalent bond – strong chemical bond where 2 or more atoms share one or more pairs of outershell electrons i. organic chemicals have carbon in covalent linkage m. hydrogen bond – hydrogen atoms holding molecules together 34) Cells a. Characteristics of life i. Nutrients ii. Respiration iii. Need energy iv. Enzymes v. Cell structure vi. Homeostasis vii. Respond to stimuli, i.e. moisture/temp./taste viii. Genetic material ix. Reproduction x. Growth xi. Waste b. Organelles i. Cytoskeleton – maintenance of cell shape; anchorage for organelles; movement of organelles within cells; cell movement; made up of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments ii. Flagella & cilia – used for movement; have a 9 + 2 arrangement of microtubules covered by cell’s plasma membrane iii. Plasma membrane – consists of phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, at boundary of cell, acting as selective barrier to passage of ions/molecules in/out of cell iv. Smooth ER – lipid synthesis; detox in liver cells; calcium ion storage v. Rough ER – synthesis of membrane lipids & proteins, secretory proteins, and hydrolytic enzymes; formation of transport vesicles vi. Nucleus – DNA replication, RNA synthesis; assembling of ribosomal subunits vii. Golgi body – organelle in eukaryotic cells consisting of membranous sacs that modify, store, and ship products of the ER viii. Peroxisome – breaks down hydrogen peroxide ix. Lysosomes – help digest food, bacteria, and a cell’s damaged organelles for recycling x. Mitochondria – conversion of food to energy (ATP) xi. Chloroplasts – conversion of light energy to sugar (plant cells only) xii. Ribosomes – protein synthesis xiii. Cell wall – support & protection; binding of cells in tissues (plant cells only) xiv. Centrioles – microtubules that are important for cell division in mitosis xv. Chromatin – genetic material when a cell is not dividing xvi. Chromosome – genetic material when a cell is dividing c. Eukaryotic cell – cell that has a membrane-enclosed nucleus (plants/animals/fungi/Protista) d. Prokaryotic cell – cell lacking membrane-enclosed nucleus (bacteria/archaea = like extreme environments) e. Not in animal cells – central vacuole, chloroplast, cell wall, plasmodesmata 3 BIO 101 – Exam #2 Study Guide Not in plant cells – lysosomes, centriole, flagellum Cytoplasm – contents of eukaryotic cell between plasma membrane & nuclear membrane Diffusion – going from area of high concentration to one of low concentration Osmosis – diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane Passive transport – diffusion of a substance across biological membrane w/o energy Active transport – movement of a substance across biological membrane against its concentration gradient aided by specific transport proteins and require energy (often as ATP) l. Facilitated diffusion – passage of a substance w/ help of specific transport protein across a biological membrane down its concentration gradient m. Phospholipid bilayer – phosphate head = hydrophilic/water-soluble; fatty acid = hydrophobic/water-insoluble n. Endocytosis – cellular uptake of molecules or particles via formation of new vesicles from plasma membrane i. Phagocytosis – type of endocytosis consisting of cell “eating” ii. Pinocytosis – type of endocytosis consisting of cell “drinking” o. Exocytosis – movement of materials out of a cell’s cytoplasm by fusion of vesicles w/ plasma membrane p. Receptor-mediated endocytosis – movement of specific molecules into a cell by inward budding of membrane vesicles, containing proteins w/ receptor sites specific to molecules being taken in q. Isotonic – a solution when surrounding a cell that has no effect on passage of water in/out of the cell r. Hypertonic – more solute outside, water flows out, cell shrinks (crenation) s. Hypotonic – more solute inside, water flows in, cell bursts (lysis) t. Word roots i. Cyto = cell ii. Lyso = breakdown iii. Some = body iv. Endo = inside v. Exo = outside vi. Pro = before vii. Eu = real/true viii. Kary = nucleus ix. Chrome = color x. Lipo = fat xi. Hyper = too much xii. Hypo = too little 35) Scientific Method a. Observations i. Hypotheses 1. Predictions a. Experimentation i. Conclusions 36) Metric System a. Used to measure length, weight, volume, and temperature b. Length i. 1,000m = 1km ii. 1.6km = 1 mile 4 f. g. h. i. j. k. BIO 101 – Exam #2 Study Guide iii. Kilo = 1,000 iv. 1m = 100 centi (hundredth) = 1,000 milli (thousandth) = 1,000,000 micro (millionth) = 1,000,000,000 nano (billionth) = 10,000,000,000 angstrom (ten billionth) v. 5,280 ft = 1 mile vi. 30cm = 1ft vii. 2.54cm = 1in c. Weight i. ST (short ton) = 2,000lbs (used in U.S.) ii. Long Ton = 2,240lbs (used in ships) iii. Metric Ton = 1,000kg = 2,206lbs d. Volume i. 1 barrel of oil = 42 gallons ii. 1 gallon = 3.78 liters iii. 1 liter = 1.06 quarts e. Temperature i. 0 degrees C = 32 degrees F ii. 100 degrees C = 212 degrees F iii. 37 degrees C = 98.6 degrees F iv. 20 degrees C = 68 degrees F 5 BIO 101 – Exam #2 Study Guide 6 BIO 101 – Exam #2 Study Guide 7 BIO 101 – Exam #2 Study Guide 8 BIO 101 – Exam #2 Study Guide 9 BIO 101 – Exam #2 Study Guide 10