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Anatomy and Physiology I
Dr. McGehee
02/28/13
Chapter 1-5 Outline
Good Study Strategies Crucial for Success
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•
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•
•
•
•
•
•
Attend all lectures and labs
Read the chapters before going to lecture
Read and complete the Pre-Lab before going to lab
Devote a block of time each day to your A&P course
Set up a study schedule and stick to it
Do not procrastinate
Develop the skill of memorization, and practice it regularly
As soon as you experience difficulty with the course, seek assistance
End-of-Chapter Study and Review Materials
Chapter 1
An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
Chapter Goals:
• Define anatomy and physiology
• Explain the relationship between anatomy and physiology, and describe
various
specialties of each discipline.
• Identify the major levels of organization in organisms, from the simplest
to the most
complex, and identify major components of each organ system.
• Explain the concept of homeostasis.
• Describe how negative feedback and positive feedback are involved in
homeostatic
regulation, and explain the significance of homeostasis.
• Use anatomical terms to describe body sections, body regions, and relative
positions.
• Identify the major body cavities and their subdivisions, and describe the
functions of
each.
Chapter 1 Outline
An Introduction to Studying the Human Body
• Define vertebrates
• Homeostasis is: The goal of physiological regulation and the key to
survival in a changing
environment
Anatomy and Physiology
• Anatomy
• Describes the ________ of the body
• Oldest medical science
• Physiology
• Is the study of_________
Relationships between Anatomy and Physiology
• Anatomy
• Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy
• Surface anatomy:
• Regional anatomy:
• Systemic anatomy:
• Developmental anatomy:
• Clinical anatomy:
• Microscopic anatomy examines ________
• Cytology:
• cyt- = cell
• Histology:
• Physiology
•
•
•
•
Cell physiology:
Organ physiology:
Systemic physiology:
Pathological physiology:
Levels of Organization
• The Chemical (or Molecular) Level
• Atoms are the smallest chemical units
• Molecules are a group of atoms working together
• The Cellular Level
• Cells are a group of atoms, molecules, and organelles working together
• The Tissue Level
• A tissue is a group of similar ____ working together
• The Organ Level
• An organ is a group of different ____ working together
• The Organ System Level
• An organ system is a group of _____ working together
• Humans have ____ organ systems
• The Organism Level
• A human is an organism
11 Organ Systems
1. Integumentary
• Major Organs
• Skin
• Hair
• Sweat glands
• Nails
• Functions
• Protects against environmental hazards
• Helps regulate body temperature
• Provides sensory information
2. Skeletal
• Major Organs:
• Functions:
3. Muscular
• Major Organs:
• Functions:
4. Nervous
• Major Organs:
• Functions:
5. Endocrine
• Major Organs:
• Functions:
6. Cardiovascular
• Major Organs:
• Functions:
7. Lymphatic
• Major Organs:
• Functions:
8. Respiratory
• Major Organs:
• Functions:
9. Digestive
• Major Organs:
• Functions:
10. Urinary
• Major Organs:
• Functions:
11. Reproductive (Male vs. Female)
• Major Organs:
• Functions:
Homeostasis
•
Homeostasis
o All body systems working together to __________
o Systems respond to external and internal changes to function within a
________
•
Mechanisms of Regulation
o Define Autoregulation (intrinsic) and give examples
o Define Extrinsic regulation and give examples
o Receptor
o Control center
o Effector
Negative and Positive Feedback
•
Negative Feedback
o The response of the effector ____ the stimulus
o Body is brought back into ____
o Normal range is ______
•
Positive Feedback
o The response of the effector_____ change of the stimulus
o Body is moved _____ from homeostasis
o Normal range is _____
o Used to ______up processes
Systems Integration
•
•
•
•
•
•
Systems work together to maintain ______
Homeostasis is a state of ___________
Dynamic equilibrium — continual adaptation
Physiological systems work to restore ______
Failure results in _________
Be able to give at least 1 example of the roles of organ systems in
homeostatic
regulation. For example:
o Internal Stimulus=Body Temperature
o System involved=Integumentary system
o Function of the organ system=heat loss
Anatomical Terminology
•
Superficial Anatomy/Anatomical Landmarks: I will not ask you to map these,
but I may
use the terminology in a question. Ex: cephalic, caudal, and inguinal
•
•
•
•
What is the standard anatomical position?
•
Name the 9 Abdominopelvic regions, be able to label a figure, and be able to
identify
organs within these regions
•
Directional Terms
o Anterior
o Ventral
o Posterior/Dorsal
o Cranial/Cephalic
o Superior
Supine:
Prone:
Name the 4 Abdominopelvic quadrants, be able to label a figure and be able to
identify
organs within these regions
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Caudal
Inferior
Medial
Lateral
Proximal
Distal
Superficial
Deep
•
•
Reference terms based on ____ and not the observer
•
•
Essential Functions of Body Cavities:
•
•
Viscera
•
The Thoracic Cavity
o Right and left pleural cavities
 Contain right and left lungs
o Mediastinum
 Upper portion filled with ___________
 Lower portion contains pericardial cavity
 The heart is located within the pericardial cavity
•
The Abdominopelvic Cavity
o Peritoneal cavity
 Parietal peritoneum:
 Visceral peritoneum:
o Abdominal cavity
o Pelvic cavity
Sectional Anatomy
o Plane: a three-dimensional axis
o Section: a slice parallel to a plane
o Transverse or horizontal
o Sagittal
o Midsagittal
o Parasagittal
o Frontal or coronal
Body Cavities—be able to give examples of what organs each cavities contains
Ventral body cavity (coelom)
o Thoracic cavity
o Abdominopelvic cavity
Serous Membranes
o Consist of parietal layer and visceral layer
o Function:
These figures makes learning the Body Cavities a bit clearer:
Chapter 2
The Chemical Level of Organization
An Introduction to the Chemical Level of Organization
Chapter Goals:
 Describe an atom and how atomic structure affects interactions between
atoms.
 Compare the ways in which atoms combine to form molecules and compounds.

Describe the crucial role of enzymes in metabolism.

Distinguish between organic and inorganic compounds.

Explain how the chemical properties of water make life possible.

Discuss the importance of pH and the role of buffers in body fluids.

Describe the physiological roles of inorganic compounds.

Discuss the structures and functions of carbohydrates.

Discuss the structures and functions of lipids.

Discuss the structures and functions of proteins.

Discuss the functions of nucleic acids.

Explain the relationship between chemicals and cells.
Chapter 2 Outline
An Introduction to the Chemical Level of Organization
Chemistry

Is the science of change
Atoms and Atomic Structure



•
•
Matter
o Is made up of ______
o Atoms join together to form chemicals with different characteristics
o Chemical characteristics determine physiology at the molecular and cellular
levels
Subatomic Particles
o Proton +
o Neutron (neutral)
o Electron Atomic Structure

Nucleus contains____

Electron cloud contains ____
Elements are the most basic chemicals
Electrons and Energy Levels
o Electrons in the electron cloud determine the reactivity of an atom
o
The electron cloud contains shells, or energy levels that hold a maximum
number of electrons
 Lower shells fill ______
 Outermost shell is the valence shell, and it determines _____
Molecules and Compounds
•
Chemical Bonds
o Involve the sharing, gaining, and losing of _________ in the valence shell
•
Three major types of chemical bonds (describe each)
1. Ionic bonds
 Cations
 Anions
2. Covalent bonds
 Polar
 Non polar
3. Hydrogen bonds
 Water and surface tension
•
Chemical Bonds
o Molecules
o Compounds
o Compounds are all molecules, but not all molecules are compounds
•
States of Matter
o Solid
o Liquid
o Gas
•
Molecular Weights-just define this term, I will not have you calculate the
molecular
weight.
Chemical Reactions
•
•
•
•
Reactants
Products
Metabolism
Breaking chemical bonds
o Hydrolysis A-B + H2O = A-H + HO-B
•
Forming chemical bonds
o Dehydration synthesis A-H + HO-B = A-B + H2O
Enzymes
•
Chemical reactions in cells cannot start without help
o Activation energy is the amount of energy needed to get a reaction started
o Enzymes are protein catalysts that lower the activation energy of reactions
•
•
Exergonic (Exothermic) Reactions
Endergonic (Endothermic) Reactions
Organic and Inorganic Compounds
• Nutrients
•
•
•
Metabolites
Inorganic Compounds-define and give examples
Organic Compounds-define and give examples
Properties of Water
• solution
• solvent
• solute
• Solubility
• Reactivity
• High Heat Capacity
• Lubrication
The Properties of Aqueous Solutions
•
•
•
•
•
•
Electrolytes and body fluids
Hydrophilic-define and give examples
hydrophobic-define and give examples
Colloids-define and give examples
Suspensions-define and give examples
Concentration
pH and Homeostasis
• pH
• Neutral pH
• Acidic pH Lower Than 7.0
o High H+ concentration
o Low OH concentration
• Basic (or alkaline) pH Higher Than 7.0
o Low H+ concentration
o High OH concentration
• pH of Human Blood
o Ranges from 7.35 to 7.45
•
pH Scale
o Has an____relationship with H+ concentration
o
Inorganic Compounds
• Acid
• Base
• Weak Acids and Weak Bases
• Salts
• Buffers
• Antacids
Organic Molecules
• Contain functional groups that determine chemistry
o Carbohydrates
o Lipids
o Proteins (or amino acids)
o Nucleic acids
Carbohydrates
•
Saccharide = “sugar”
o Glucose is the most important ____ in the body
o Primary function of carbohydrates: energy source and storage of glucose
Lipids
•
Mainly hydrophobic molecules such as _____
o Fatty Acids-what are their functions in the body?
o Eicosanoids-what are their functions in the body?
o Glycerides-what are their functions in the body?
o Have three important functions
1. Energy source
2. Insulation
3. Protection
o Steroids
o Phospholipids and Glycolipids
o Phospholipids have hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails and are
structural lipids, components of plasma (cell) membranes
Proteins
• Basic building blocks
• There are 20 amino acids
• Seven Major Protein Functions
1. Support
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
•
Movement
Transport
Buffering
Metabolic Regulation
Coordination and Control
Defense
Protein Structure
o Long chains of amino acids
•
•
•
•

Five components of amino acid structure
o Central carbon atom
o Hydrogen atom
o Amine containing group
o (—COOH) containing group
o Variable side chain or “R group” --this makes each of the 20 amino acids
unique
Hooking Amino Acids Together
o Forms a ____ bond
o Resulting molecule is a peptide
Shape is based on sequence of amino acids
Protein Shape-4 levels of structural complexity—complexity increases from
primary to
quarternary
o Primary structure
o Secondary structure
o Tertiary structure
o Quaternary structure
Fibrous and Globular proteins
Enzyme Function
 Enzymes are catalysts
o Proteins that lower the activation energy of a chemical reaction
o Are not changed or used up in the reaction
 Enzymes also exhibit:
o Specificity — will only work on limited types of substrates
o Saturation Limits — by their concentration
o Regulation — by other cellular chemicals
 Cofactors and Enzyme Function
o Cofactor
 An ion or molecule that binds to an enzyme before substrates can bind
o Coenzyme
 Nonprotein organic cofactors (vitamins)
 Effects of Temperature and pH on Enzyme Function
o Denaturation
 Loss of shape and function due to heat or pH

Nucleic Acids
o
o
o

Are large organic molecules, found in the nucleus, which store and process
information at the molecular level
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
 Determines inherited characteristics
 Directs protein synthesis
 Controls enzyme production
 Controls metabolism
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
 Controls intermediate steps in protein synthesis
Chemicals and Cells
o Biochemical building blocks form functional units called cells
Chapter 3
The Cellular Level of Organization
An Introduction to Cells
Chapter goals:
•
List the functions of the plasma membrane and the structural features that
enable it to
perform those functions.
•
•
Describe the organelles of a typical cell, and indicate the specific
functions of each.
•
•
Summarize the role of DNA in protein synthesis, cell structure, and cell
function.
•
Explain the functions of the cell nucleus and discuss the nature and
importance of the
genetic code.
Describe the processes of cellular diffusion and osmosis, and explain their
role in
physiological systems.
Describe carrier-mediated transport and vesicular transport mechanisms used
by cells to
facilitate the absorption or removal of specific substances.
Chapter 3 Outline:
An Introduction to Cells
 Cell Theory
o Cells are the building blocks of all plants and animals
o Cells are the smallest units that perform all vital physiological functions
o Each cell maintains homeostasis at the cellular level
Types of Cells
 Sex Cells (Germ Cells)
 Somatic Cells
Extracellular Fluid
Cytosol (intracellular fluid)
Plasma Membrane
 Functions
o Physical Isolation
o Regulation of Exchange with the Environment
o Sensitivity to the Environment
o Structural Support
Membrane Lipids
 Phospholipid bilayer
 Hydrophilic heads
 Hydrophobic fatty-acid tails
 Barrier to ions and water — soluble compounds
Membrane Proteins
 Integral Proteins
 Peripheral Proteins
 Anchoring Proteins (stabilizers)
 Recognition Proteins (identifiers)
 Enzymes
 Receptor Proteins
 Carrier Proteins
 Channels
Membrane Carbohydrates
 Proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and glycolipids
 Functions of the sticky coating
o Lubrication and Protection
o Anchoring and Locomotion
o Specificity in Binding (receptors)
o Recognition (immune response)
Organelles and the Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
Organelles—what is the function of each of the organelles
•
Nonmembranous organelles
•
•
Include the cytoskeleton, microvilli, centrioles, cilia, ribosomes, and
proteasomes
Membranous organelles
•
Include the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes,
peroxisomes, and mitochondria
Autolysis
Membrane Flow
•
A continuous exchange of membrane parts by vesicles
Mitochondrial Energy Production: Mitochondrion takes chemical energy from
food (glucose)
•
•
•
•
Produces energy molecule ATP
Called aerobic metabolism (cellular respiration)
Mitochondria use oxygen to break down food and produce ATP
Glucose + oxygen + ADP = carbon dioxide + water + ATP
Cell Nucleus
•
Information Storage
•
•
•
•
DNA
Gene/genetic code
DNA stores genetic instructions for proteins
Genetic code
•
•
The chemical language of DNA instructions
Proteins determine cell structure and function
DNA RNAProtein
•
•
DNA is transcribed to RNA.
RNA is translated to protein
Membrane Transport
•
The plasma (cell) membrane is a barrier, but:
•
•
•
Nutrients must get in
Products and wastes must get out
Permeability
•
•
•
impermeable
freely permeable
selectively permeable
Plasma membrane is selectively permeable
•
Selective permeability restricts materials based on:
• Size
• Electrical charge
• Molecular shape
• Lipid solubility
Transport through a plasma membrane can be:
• Active (requiring energy and ATP)
• Passive (no energy required)
•
•
•
Diffusion (passive)
Carrier-mediated transport (passive or active)
Vesicular transport (active)
Diffusion
•
•
Concentration is the amount of solute in a solvent
Concentration gradient
•
•
Factors Influencing Diffusion
•
•
•
•
•
•
Distance the particle has to move
Molecule Size
Smaller is faster
Temperature
More heat, faster motion
Materials that diffuse through plasma membrane by simple diffusion
•
•
•
More solute in one part of a solvent than another
Lipid-soluble compounds (alcohols, fatty acids, and steroids)
Dissolved gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide)
Channel-mediated diffusion
• Water-soluble compounds and ions
• Factors in channel-mediated diffusion
• Size
• Charge
• Interaction with the channel – leak channels
Osmosis
•
•
Isotonic
Hypotonic (hypo- = below)
•
•
Hypertonic (hyper- = above)
A cell in a hypotonic solution:
• Gains water
• Ruptures (hemolysis of red blood cells)
•
A cell in a hypertonic solution:
• Loses water
• Shrinks (crenation of red blood cells)
Carriers and Vesicles
•
•
Carrier-Mediated Transport
Characteristics
• Specificity
• Saturation Limits
• Regulation
•
Facilitated Diffusion
• Passive
• Carrier proteins transport molecules too large to fit through channel
proteins
(glucose, amino acids)
•
Active Transport
• Active transport proteins
• Require energy
Phagocytosis
Endocytosis
Chapter 4
The Tissue Level of Organization
An Introduction to Tissues
Chapter Goals:
 Identify the four major types of tissues in the body and describe their
roles.
 Discuss the types and functions of epithelial tissue.
 Describe the relationship between form and function for each type of
epithelium.
 Compare the structures and functions of the various types of connective
tissues.
 Describe how cartilage and bone function as a supporting connective tissue.






Explain how epithelial and connective tissues combine to form four types of
tissue
membranes, and specify the functions of each.
Describe how connective tissue establishes the framework of the body.
Describe the three types of muscle tissue and the special structural features
of each
type.
Discuss the basic structure and role of neural tissue
Describe how injuries affect the tissues of the body.
Describe how aging affects the tissues of the body.
An Introduction to Tissues
• Tissues
•
Structures with discrete structural and functional properties

Four types of tissue
1. Epithelial tissue
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscle tissue
4. Neural tissue
1. Epithelial Tissue
• Covers exposed ____
• Lines internal ____
• Forms____
2. Connective Tissue
•
•
•
•
Fills ____
Supports ____
Transports ____
Stores _____
3. Muscle Tissue
• Specialized for _____
• Skeletal muscle, heart muscle, and walls of hollow organs
4. Neural Tissue
• Carries _____ signals from one part of the body to another
Characteristics of Epithelia
•
Functions of Epithelial Tissue
1.
2.
3.
4.
Provide Physical Protection
Control Permeability
Provide ______
Produce Specialized Secretions
•
Specializations of Epithelial Cells
1. Move fluids over the epithelium (protection)
2. Move fluids through the epithelium (permeability)
3. Produce secretions (protection and messengers)
•
Polarity
1. Apical surfaces

Microvilli increase absorption or secretion
 Cilia (ciliated epithelium) move fluid
2. Basolateral surfaces
•
•
Maintaining the Integrity of Epithelia

Intercellular connections

Attachment to the basement membrane

Epithelial maintenance and repair
Intercellular Connections
• Support and communication
• Cell junctions (tight, gap, desmosomes)
• Form bonds with other cells or extracellular material
• Attachment to the Basement Membrane
• Epithelial Maintenance and Repair
• Epithelia are replaced by division of cells near basement membrane

Classification of Epithelia
1. Based on shape
•
•
•
Squamous epithelia
Cuboidal epithelia
Columnar epithelia
2. Based on layers
•
•
Simple epithelium
Stratified epithelium
Some examples of functions of each of the types of cells
• Squamous Epithelia
•
Simple squamous epithelium
• Absorption and diffusion
•
Stratified squamous epithelium
• Protects against attacks
•
• Keratin protein adds strength and water resistance
Cuboidal Epithelia
•
Simple cuboidal epithelium
• Secretion and absorption
•
•
•
Stratified cuboidal epithelia
• Sweat ducts and mammary ducts
Transitional Epithelium
•
Tolerates repeated cycles of stretching and recoiling and returns to its
previous
shape without damage
•
•
Appearance changes as stretching occurs
Situated in regions of the urinary system (e.g., urinary bladder)
Columnar Epithelia
•
Simple columnar epithelium
• Absorption and secretion
•
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
• Cilia movement
•
Stratified columnar epithelium
• Protection
Characteristics of Connective Tissue
1. Specialized cells
2. Solid extracellular protein fibers
3. Fluid extracellular ground substance
•
The Extracellular Components of Connective Tissue (Fibers and Ground
Substance)
•
Make up the matrix
Functions of Connective Tissue
•
•
•
•
•
•
Establishing a structural framework for the body
Transporting fluids and dissolved materials
Protecting delicate organs
Supporting, surrounding, and interconnecting other types of tissue
Storing energy reserves, especially in the form of triglycerides
Defending the body from invading microorganisms
Classification of Connective Tissues
1. Connective tissue proper
• Connect and protect
2. Fluid connective tissues
• Transport
3. Supporting connective tissues
• Structural strength
Categories of Connective Tissue Proper
•
Loose connective tissue
• More ground substance, fewer fibers
• For example, fat (adipose tissue)
•
Dense connective tissue
• More fibers, less ground substance
• For example, tendons
Types of Connective Tissue
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Fibroblasts
Fibrocytes
Adipocytes
Mesenchymal cells
Macrophages
Mast cells
Lymphocytes
Microphages
Melanocytes
Know some examples of some of the types of connective tissue:

Fibroblasts
•
The most abundant cell type
• Found in all connective tissue proper
•
Adipocytes
•
•
Fat cells
Macrophages
•
•
Large, amoeba-like cells of the immune system
Mast Cells
•
•
Stimulate inflammation after injury or infection
Lymphocytes
•
•
Specialized immune cells in lymphatic (lymphoid) system
Microphages
•
•
Phagocytic blood cells
Melanocytes
•
•
Synthesize and store the brown pigment melanin
Connective Tissue Fibers
1. Collagen fibers
2. Reticular fibers
3. Elastic fibers
•
•
•
•
Collagen Fibers
•
•
•
•
•
Most common fibers in connective tissue proper
•
•
•
•
•
Network of interwoven fibers (stroma)
•
•
•
•
Contain elastin
Strong and flexible
Resist force in one direction
For example, tendons and ligaments
Reticular Fibers
Strong and flexible
Resist force in many directions
Stabilize functional cells and structures
For example, sheaths around organs
Elastic Fibers
Branched and wavy
Return to original length after stretching
For example, elastic ligaments of vertebrae
Ground Substance
•
•
•
Long, straight, and unbranched
Is clear, colorless, and viscous
Fills spaces between cells and slows pathogen movement
Loose Connective Tissues
•
•
The “packing materials” of the body
Three types in adults
1. Areolar
2. Adipose
3. Reticular
•
Areolar Tissue
•
•
•
•
•
•
Least specialized
Open framework
Viscous ground substance
Elastic fibers
Holds blood vessels and capillary beds
• For example, under skin (subcutaneous layer)
Adipose Tissue
• Contains many adipocytes (fat cells)
• 2 types of adipose tissue
•
1. White fat
2. Brown fat
Reticular Tissue
•
•
•
•
Provides support
Complex, three-dimensional network
Supportive fibers (stroma)
Reticular organs
• Spleen, liver, lymph nodes, and bone marrow
•
Dense Connective Tissues
•
Connective tissues proper, tightly packed with high numbers of collagen or
elastic fibers
• Dense regular connective tissue
• Dense irregular connective tissue
• Elastic tissue
•
Dense Regular Connective Tissue
•
Tightly packed, parallel collagen fibers
• Tendons attach _______ to bones
• Ligaments connect bone to bone and stabilize organs
•
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
•
Interwoven networks of collagen fibers
• Layered in skin
• Around cartilage
• Around bones
• Form capsules around some organs
•
Elastic Tissue
•

Fluid Connective Tissues
•
•
•
•
Made of elastic fibers
• For example, elastic ligaments of spinal vertebrae
Blood and lymph
Watery matrix of dissolved proteins
• Formed elements of blood
• Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
• White blood cells ________
• Platelets
Extracellular
• Plasma
• Interstitial fluid
• Lymph
Supporting Connective Tissues
o Support Soft Tissues and Body Weight
 Cartilage
o Gel-type ground substance
o For shock absorption and protection
 Bone
 Calcified (made rigid by calcium salts, minerals)
 For weight support
o
o
Cartilage Matrix
•
•
Proteoglycans derived from chondroitin sulfates
•
No blood vessels
 Chondrocytes produce antiangiogenesis factor
 Outer, fibrous layer (for strength)
 Inner, cellular layer (for growth and maintenance)
Ground substance proteins
•
Chondrocytes (cartilage cells) surrounded by lacunae (chambers)
Cartilage Structure
Types of Cartilage
1.
2.
3.
Hyaline cartilage
Elastic cartilage
Fibrocartilage (fibrous cartilage)
Hyaline Cartilage
•
Stiff, flexible support
•
Reduces friction between bones
Elastic Cartilage
•
Supportive but bends easily
Fibrocartilage (Fibrous Cartilage)
•
Limits _________
•
Prevents bone-to-bone contact
•
Pads knee joints
Bone or Osseous Tissue
•
•
Strong
•
•
•
Physical barriers
Resists shattering (flexible collagen fibers)
•
Bone Cells = ___________
Membranes
Line or cover portions of the body
Consist of:
o An epithelium
o Supported by connective tissue
Four Types of Membranes
1. Mucous membranes
2. Serous membranes
3. Cutaneous membrane
4. Synovial membranes
Mucous Membranes
•
•
•
Line passageways that have external connections
To reduce friction
To facilitate absorption and excretion
Serous Membranes
•
•
•
•
Line cavities not open to the outside
Are thin but _________
reduce friction
Have a parietal portion covering the cavity
•
Have a visceral portion (serosa) covering the organs
o
Three Serous Membranes
1. Pleura
2. Peritoneum
3. Pericardium
Cutaneous Membrane
•
•
Is skin, surface of the body
Thick, _______, and dry
Synovial Membranes
•
•
•
Line moving, articulating joint cavities
Produce synovial fluid (lubricant)
Protect the ends of bones
Internal Framework of the Body
•
Connective Tissues
1. Provide strength and _____
2. Maintain positions of internal organs
3. Provide routes for blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves
•
•
•
Fasciae
The body’s framework of connective tissue
Layers and wrappings that support or surround organs
Muscle Tissue
• Specialized for contraction
• Produces all body movement
• Three types of muscle tissue
1. Skeletal muscle tissue
• Large body muscles responsible for _______
2. Cardiac muscle tissue
• Found only in the ____________
3. Smooth muscle tissue
• Found in walls of hollow, contracting organs (blood vessels; urinary
bladder;
respiratory, digestive, and reproductive tracts)
Classification of Muscle Cells
•
Striated
•
•
•
•
•
Nonstriated
single nucleus
multinucleate
voluntarily (consciously)
involuntarily (automatically)
1. Skeletal Muscle Cells
•
•
•
_____ and thin
Usually called muscle fibers
Do not divide
2. Cardiac Muscle Cells
•
•
Form branching networks connected at intercalated discs
Regulated by pacemaker cells
3. Smooth Muscle Cells
•
•
Small and tapered
Can divide and regenerate
Neural Tissue
• Specialized for conducting electrical impulses
• Rapidly senses internal or external environment
• Processes information and controls responses
•
Two Types of Neural Cells
1. Neurons
2. Neuroglia
• Parts of a Neuron
•
•
•
•
Cell body
Dendrites
Axon
Cells restore homeostasis with two processes
1. Inflammation
2. Regeneration
4-10 Tissue Injuries and Repair
•
Inflammation = Inflammatory Response
•
The tissue’s first response to injury
•
Signs and symptoms of the inflammatory response include:
•
•
•
•
Swelling
Redness
Heat
Pain
Can be triggered by:
•
•
Trauma (physical injury)
Infection (the presence of harmful pathogens)
As cells break down:
•
•
Lysosomes release_____that destroy the injured cell and attack surrounding
tissues
necrosis
Necrotic tissues and cellular debris (pus) accumulate in the wound
•
•
Abscess – pus trapped in an enclosed area
Dilation of blood vessels
•
•
•
•
Increases blood circulation in the area
•
•
•
•
Plasma diffuses into the area
Causes warmth and redness
Brings more nutrients and oxygen to the area
Removes wastes
Causes swelling and pain
Phagocytic white blood cells
Clean up the area
Regeneration
• When the injury or infection is cleaned up
• Healing (regeneration) begins
• Fibrocytes move into necrotic area
• Lay down collagen fibers
• To bind the area together (scar tissue)
• New cells migrate into area
•
Not all tissues can regenerate
•
•
Epithelia and connective tissues regenerate well
Cardiac cells and neurons do not regenerate (or regenerate poorly)
Aging and Tissue Structure
•
•
•
Speed and efficiency of tissue repair decrease with age, due to:
o Slower rate of ______consumption (metabolism)
o Hormonal alterations
o Reduced physical activity
•
Chemical and structural tissue changes
o Thinning epithelia and connective tissues
o Increased bruising and bone _______
o Joint pain and broken bones
Cardiovascular disease
Mental deterioration
Aging and Cancer Incidence
•
•
Cancer rates increase with age
Cancer is the #____ cause of death in the United States
Chapter 5
The Integumentary System
An Introduction to the Integumentary System
Chapter Goals:
• Describe the main structural features of the epidermis, and explain the
functional
significance of each.
• Explain what accounts for individual differences in skin color, and discuss
the response of
melanocytes to sunlight exposure.
•
•
•
•
•
Describe the interaction between sunlight and vitamin D3 production.
Describe the roles of epidermal growth factor.
Describe the structure and functions of the dermis.
Describe the structure and functions of the hypodermis.
Describe the mechanisms that produce hair, and explain the structural basis
for hair
texture and color.
• Discuss the various kinds of glands in the skin, and list the secretions of
those glands.
• Describe the anatomical structure of nails, and explain how they are
formed.
• Summarize the effects of aging on the skin.
Use this figure to orient yourself:
An Introduction to the Integumentary System
•
The Integument
1. Cutaneous membrane (skin)
2. Accessory structures
•
Two Components of the Cutaneous Membrane
1. Outer epidermis
•
Superficial epithelium (epithelial tissues)
2. Inner dermis
•
•
Connective tissues
Accessory Structures
• Originate in the ____
• Extend through the ______ to skin surface
• Give examples of accessory structures
• Nails
•
Connections
• Cardiovascular system
• Blood vessels in the dermis
• Nervous system
• Sensory receptors for pain, touch, and temperature
•
Hypodermis (Superficial Fascia or Subcutaneous Layer)
• Loose _____ tissue
• Below the dermis
•
Functions of Skin
•
•
•
•
Protection of ____
Excretion of ______
Maintenance of _______
Production of ___________
An Introduction to the Integumentary System
•
Functions of Skin
•
•
•
•
•
Production of keratin
Synthesis of vitamin ____
Storage of ______
Detection of touch, _______
The Epidermis
• Avascular means what?
• ________ squamous epithelium
• where does this layer get nutrients from?
Cells of the Epidermis
• Keratinocytes
•
Thin Skin
• Has ___ layers of keratinocytes and covers what parts of the body?
•
Thick Skin
• Has ___ layers of keratinocytes and covers what parts of the body?
•
Structures of the Epidermis
•
•
The five strata of keratinocytes
From basal lamina to free surface
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
•
Stratum basale
Stratum spinosum
Stratum granulosum
Stratum lucidum
Stratum corneum
Stratum Basale
•
•
•
•
Is attached to basement membrane
Forms a strong bond between epidermis and dermis
Forms epidermal ridges (e.g., fingerprints)
Dermal papillae (tiny mounds)
• Increase the area of basement membrane
• Strengthen attachment between epidermis and dermis
• Has many basal cells
•
Specialized Cells of Stratum Basale-function?
• Merkel cells
• Melanocytes
•
Stratum Spinosum — the “spiny layer”
• Contain dendritic (Langerhans) cells, active in immune response
•
Stratum Granulosum — the “grainy layer”
• Keratin
• A tough, fibrous protein
• Makes up hair and nails
• Keratohyalin
• Dense granules
• Cross-link keratin fibers
•
Cells of Stratum Granulosum
• Produce protein fibers
• Dehydrate and die
•
Stratum Lucidum — the “clear layer”
• Found only in thick skin
•
Stratum Corneum — the “horn layer”
• Exposed surface of skin
•
Keratinization
• Occurs on all exposed skin surfaces except eyes
•
Perspiration
• Insensible perspiration
• Sensible perspiration
• Dehydration results:
• Hydration:
•
Skin Color is Influenced by Two Pigments
1. Carotene
2. Melanin
•
•
Carotene
•
•
•
•
•
_____ pigment
Found in _______
Accumulates in epidermal cells and fatty tissues of the dermis
Can be converted to vitamin A
Melanin
•
•
•
•
•
•
Blood circulation (red blood cells)
Yellow-brown or black pigment
Produced by ________- in stratum basale
Stored in transport vesicles (melanosomes)
Transferred to keratinocytes
Function of Melanocytes
Capillaries and Skin Color
• Cyanosis
• Illness and Skin Color-Vitiligo
•
Production of Vitamin D3
• Insufficient vitamin D3 Can cause _________
• Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF)
• growth factor
• Used in laboratories to grow skin grafts
• Functions of EGF
• Accelerates keratin production
• Stimulates epidermal repair
• Stimulates glandular secretion
•
The Dermis
•
•
•
•
Located between epidermis and subcutaneous layer
Anchors epidermal accessory structures (hair follicles, sweat glands)
Two components
1. Outer papillary layer
2. Deep reticular layer
The Papillary Layer
• Consists of areolar tissue
• Contains smaller capillaries, lymphatics, and sensory neurons
• Has dermal papillae projecting between epidermal ridges
•
The Reticular Layer
•
•
•
•
•
Consists of dense irregular connective tissue
Contains larger blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerve fibers
Contains collagen and elastic fibers
Contains connective tissue proper
Dermatitis
• An inflammation of the papillary layer
• Caused by infection, radiation, mechanical irritation, or chemicals (e.g.,
poison ivy)
• Characterized by itch or pain
•
Dermal Strength and Elasticity
•
•
Presence of two types of fibers
1. Collagen fibers
2. Elastic fibers
Skin Damage
• Sagging and wrinkles (reduced skin elasticity) are caused by:
• Stretch marks are caused by:
•
The Dermal Blood Supply
•
•
•
•
•
Cutaneous plexus
Papillary plexus
Venous plexus
Contusion
Innervation of the Skin
• Nerve fibers in skin control
• The Hypodermis (Subcutaneous Layer)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Lies below the _______
Stabilizes the__________
Allows separate _______
Made of elastic areolar and adipose tissues
Connected to the reticular layer of integument by connective tissue fibers
Few capillaries and no vital __________
Deposits of Subcutaneous Fat
Hair, Hair Follicles, Sebaceous Glands, Sweat Glands, and Nails
• Located in ?
• Project through ?
•
Human Body
• The human body is covered with hair, except:
•
Functions of Hair
•
The Hair Follicle
•
•
•
•
•
Located deep in dermis
Produces nonliving hairs
Wrapped in a dense connective tissue sheath
Base is surrounded by sensory nerves (root hair plexus)
Accessory Structures of Hair
• Arrector pili
• ______ smooth muscle
• Produces “goose bumps”
• Sebaceous glands
• Lubricate the hair
• Control _________
•
Regions of the Hair
• Hair root
• Hair shaft
•
Hair Production
• Begins at the _________ of a hair follicle, deep in the _____
• The hair papilla contains _______
• The hair bulb produces hair _________
• A layer of dividing basal cells
• Produces hair structure
• Pushes hair up and out of skin
•
Hair Shaft Structure
• Medulla
• Cortex
• Cuticle
•
Keratin
• As hair is produced, it is keratinized
•
Layers in the Follicle
• Internal root sheath
• External root sheath
• Glassy membrane
•
Hair Growth Cycle
• Growing hair vs. club hair
• New hair growth cycle
• Follicle becomes active
• Produces new hair
• Club hair is shed
•
Types of Hairs
• Vellus hairs
• Terminal hairs
•
Hair Color
• Produced by ____
• Determined by ____________
•
•
Exocrine Glands in Skin
•
Sebaceous Glands (oil glands)
• Holocrine glands
• Secrete ____________
•
Two Types of Sweat Glands
1. Apocrine glands
2. Merocrine (eccrine) glands
Types of Sebaceous (Oil) Glands
• Simple branched alveolar glands
• Associated ______
• Sebaceous follicles
• Discharge directly onto ________
• Sebum
•
Other Integumentary Glands
1. Mammary glands
2. Ceruminous glands
• Control of Glands
• Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
• Works simultaneously over entire body
• Merocrine sweat glands
Sweating occurs locally
• Thermoregulation
• Regulates body temperature
•
Nails
• Protect ________
• Made of dead cells packed with __________
•
Nail Production
• Occurs in a _________ near the bone called the nail root
•
Structure of a Nail
•
•
•
•
•
•
Lunula
Sides of nails
Skin beneath the distal free edge of the nail
Visible nail emerges:
• From the eponychium (cuticle)
• At the tip of the proximal nail fold
Repair of the Integument Following an Injury
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Nail body
Bleeding occurs
Mast cells trigger inflammatory response
A scab stabilizes and protects the area
cells migrate around the wound
Macrophages clean the area
Fibroblasts and endothelial cells move in
Fibroblasts produce scar tissue
• Inflammation decreases, clot disintegrates
• Fibroblasts strengthen scar tissue
Effects of Aging
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Epidermal thinning
Decreased numbers of _____
Decreased _________ production
Decreased melanocyte ________
Decreased glandular _________
Reduced blood ________
Decreased _______of hair follicles
• Reduction of ________ fibers
• Decreased hormone ______
• __________repair rate
•
Why is the Integumentary System so important?
Download
1. Science
2. Chemistry
chapter_outline1_5.doc
4-2 Epithelial Tissue - Anatomy and Physiology
4 The Tissue Level of
4-5 Supporting Connective Tissues
detailed lecture outline
Ch4 lec notes Martini 9e.doc
Connective Tissue
Tissues
Acne
The Integumentary System - Sinoe Medical Association
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