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☰ Search Explore Log in Create new account Upload × Anatomy and Physiology I Dr. McGehee 02/28/13 Chapter 1-5 Outline Good Study Strategies Crucial for Success • • • • • • • • • Attend all lectures and labs Read the chapters before going to lecture Read and complete the Pre-Lab before going to lab Devote a block of time each day to your A&P course Set up a study schedule and stick to it Do not procrastinate Develop the skill of memorization, and practice it regularly As soon as you experience difficulty with the course, seek assistance End-of-Chapter Study and Review Materials Chapter 1 An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology Chapter Goals: • Define anatomy and physiology • Explain the relationship between anatomy and physiology, and describe various specialties of each discipline. • Identify the major levels of organization in organisms, from the simplest to the most complex, and identify major components of each organ system. • Explain the concept of homeostasis. • Describe how negative feedback and positive feedback are involved in homeostatic regulation, and explain the significance of homeostasis. • Use anatomical terms to describe body sections, body regions, and relative positions. • Identify the major body cavities and their subdivisions, and describe the functions of each. Chapter 1 Outline An Introduction to Studying the Human Body • Define vertebrates • Homeostasis is: The goal of physiological regulation and the key to survival in a changing environment Anatomy and Physiology • Anatomy • Describes the ________ of the body • Oldest medical science • Physiology • Is the study of_________ Relationships between Anatomy and Physiology • Anatomy • Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy • Surface anatomy: • Regional anatomy: • Systemic anatomy: • Developmental anatomy: • Clinical anatomy: • Microscopic anatomy examines ________ • Cytology: • cyt- = cell • Histology: • Physiology • • • • Cell physiology: Organ physiology: Systemic physiology: Pathological physiology: Levels of Organization • The Chemical (or Molecular) Level • Atoms are the smallest chemical units • Molecules are a group of atoms working together • The Cellular Level • Cells are a group of atoms, molecules, and organelles working together • The Tissue Level • A tissue is a group of similar ____ working together • The Organ Level • An organ is a group of different ____ working together • The Organ System Level • An organ system is a group of _____ working together • Humans have ____ organ systems • The Organism Level • A human is an organism 11 Organ Systems 1. Integumentary • Major Organs • Skin • Hair • Sweat glands • Nails • Functions • Protects against environmental hazards • Helps regulate body temperature • Provides sensory information 2. Skeletal • Major Organs: • Functions: 3. Muscular • Major Organs: • Functions: 4. Nervous • Major Organs: • Functions: 5. Endocrine • Major Organs: • Functions: 6. Cardiovascular • Major Organs: • Functions: 7. Lymphatic • Major Organs: • Functions: 8. Respiratory • Major Organs: • Functions: 9. Digestive • Major Organs: • Functions: 10. Urinary • Major Organs: • Functions: 11. Reproductive (Male vs. Female) • Major Organs: • Functions: Homeostasis • Homeostasis o All body systems working together to __________ o Systems respond to external and internal changes to function within a ________ • Mechanisms of Regulation o Define Autoregulation (intrinsic) and give examples o Define Extrinsic regulation and give examples o Receptor o Control center o Effector Negative and Positive Feedback • Negative Feedback o The response of the effector ____ the stimulus o Body is brought back into ____ o Normal range is ______ • Positive Feedback o The response of the effector_____ change of the stimulus o Body is moved _____ from homeostasis o Normal range is _____ o Used to ______up processes Systems Integration • • • • • • Systems work together to maintain ______ Homeostasis is a state of ___________ Dynamic equilibrium — continual adaptation Physiological systems work to restore ______ Failure results in _________ Be able to give at least 1 example of the roles of organ systems in homeostatic regulation. For example: o Internal Stimulus=Body Temperature o System involved=Integumentary system o Function of the organ system=heat loss Anatomical Terminology • Superficial Anatomy/Anatomical Landmarks: I will not ask you to map these, but I may use the terminology in a question. Ex: cephalic, caudal, and inguinal • • • • What is the standard anatomical position? • Name the 9 Abdominopelvic regions, be able to label a figure, and be able to identify organs within these regions • Directional Terms o Anterior o Ventral o Posterior/Dorsal o Cranial/Cephalic o Superior Supine: Prone: Name the 4 Abdominopelvic quadrants, be able to label a figure and be able to identify organs within these regions o o o o o o o o Caudal Inferior Medial Lateral Proximal Distal Superficial Deep • • Reference terms based on ____ and not the observer • • Essential Functions of Body Cavities: • • Viscera • The Thoracic Cavity o Right and left pleural cavities Contain right and left lungs o Mediastinum Upper portion filled with ___________ Lower portion contains pericardial cavity The heart is located within the pericardial cavity • The Abdominopelvic Cavity o Peritoneal cavity Parietal peritoneum: Visceral peritoneum: o Abdominal cavity o Pelvic cavity Sectional Anatomy o Plane: a three-dimensional axis o Section: a slice parallel to a plane o Transverse or horizontal o Sagittal o Midsagittal o Parasagittal o Frontal or coronal Body Cavities—be able to give examples of what organs each cavities contains Ventral body cavity (coelom) o Thoracic cavity o Abdominopelvic cavity Serous Membranes o Consist of parietal layer and visceral layer o Function: These figures makes learning the Body Cavities a bit clearer: Chapter 2 The Chemical Level of Organization An Introduction to the Chemical Level of Organization Chapter Goals: Describe an atom and how atomic structure affects interactions between atoms. Compare the ways in which atoms combine to form molecules and compounds. Describe the crucial role of enzymes in metabolism. Distinguish between organic and inorganic compounds. Explain how the chemical properties of water make life possible. Discuss the importance of pH and the role of buffers in body fluids. Describe the physiological roles of inorganic compounds. Discuss the structures and functions of carbohydrates. Discuss the structures and functions of lipids. Discuss the structures and functions of proteins. Discuss the functions of nucleic acids. Explain the relationship between chemicals and cells. Chapter 2 Outline An Introduction to the Chemical Level of Organization Chemistry Is the science of change Atoms and Atomic Structure • • Matter o Is made up of ______ o Atoms join together to form chemicals with different characteristics o Chemical characteristics determine physiology at the molecular and cellular levels Subatomic Particles o Proton + o Neutron (neutral) o Electron Atomic Structure Nucleus contains____ Electron cloud contains ____ Elements are the most basic chemicals Electrons and Energy Levels o Electrons in the electron cloud determine the reactivity of an atom o The electron cloud contains shells, or energy levels that hold a maximum number of electrons Lower shells fill ______ Outermost shell is the valence shell, and it determines _____ Molecules and Compounds • Chemical Bonds o Involve the sharing, gaining, and losing of _________ in the valence shell • Three major types of chemical bonds (describe each) 1. Ionic bonds Cations Anions 2. Covalent bonds Polar Non polar 3. Hydrogen bonds Water and surface tension • Chemical Bonds o Molecules o Compounds o Compounds are all molecules, but not all molecules are compounds • States of Matter o Solid o Liquid o Gas • Molecular Weights-just define this term, I will not have you calculate the molecular weight. Chemical Reactions • • • • Reactants Products Metabolism Breaking chemical bonds o Hydrolysis A-B + H2O = A-H + HO-B • Forming chemical bonds o Dehydration synthesis A-H + HO-B = A-B + H2O Enzymes • Chemical reactions in cells cannot start without help o Activation energy is the amount of energy needed to get a reaction started o Enzymes are protein catalysts that lower the activation energy of reactions • • Exergonic (Exothermic) Reactions Endergonic (Endothermic) Reactions Organic and Inorganic Compounds • Nutrients • • • Metabolites Inorganic Compounds-define and give examples Organic Compounds-define and give examples Properties of Water • solution • solvent • solute • Solubility • Reactivity • High Heat Capacity • Lubrication The Properties of Aqueous Solutions • • • • • • Electrolytes and body fluids Hydrophilic-define and give examples hydrophobic-define and give examples Colloids-define and give examples Suspensions-define and give examples Concentration pH and Homeostasis • pH • Neutral pH • Acidic pH Lower Than 7.0 o High H+ concentration o Low OH concentration • Basic (or alkaline) pH Higher Than 7.0 o Low H+ concentration o High OH concentration • pH of Human Blood o Ranges from 7.35 to 7.45 • pH Scale o Has an____relationship with H+ concentration o Inorganic Compounds • Acid • Base • Weak Acids and Weak Bases • Salts • Buffers • Antacids Organic Molecules • Contain functional groups that determine chemistry o Carbohydrates o Lipids o Proteins (or amino acids) o Nucleic acids Carbohydrates • Saccharide = “sugar” o Glucose is the most important ____ in the body o Primary function of carbohydrates: energy source and storage of glucose Lipids • Mainly hydrophobic molecules such as _____ o Fatty Acids-what are their functions in the body? o Eicosanoids-what are their functions in the body? o Glycerides-what are their functions in the body? o Have three important functions 1. Energy source 2. Insulation 3. Protection o Steroids o Phospholipids and Glycolipids o Phospholipids have hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails and are structural lipids, components of plasma (cell) membranes Proteins • Basic building blocks • There are 20 amino acids • Seven Major Protein Functions 1. Support 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. • Movement Transport Buffering Metabolic Regulation Coordination and Control Defense Protein Structure o Long chains of amino acids • • • • Five components of amino acid structure o Central carbon atom o Hydrogen atom o Amine containing group o (—COOH) containing group o Variable side chain or “R group” --this makes each of the 20 amino acids unique Hooking Amino Acids Together o Forms a ____ bond o Resulting molecule is a peptide Shape is based on sequence of amino acids Protein Shape-4 levels of structural complexity—complexity increases from primary to quarternary o Primary structure o Secondary structure o Tertiary structure o Quaternary structure Fibrous and Globular proteins Enzyme Function Enzymes are catalysts o Proteins that lower the activation energy of a chemical reaction o Are not changed or used up in the reaction Enzymes also exhibit: o Specificity — will only work on limited types of substrates o Saturation Limits — by their concentration o Regulation — by other cellular chemicals Cofactors and Enzyme Function o Cofactor An ion or molecule that binds to an enzyme before substrates can bind o Coenzyme Nonprotein organic cofactors (vitamins) Effects of Temperature and pH on Enzyme Function o Denaturation Loss of shape and function due to heat or pH Nucleic Acids o o o Are large organic molecules, found in the nucleus, which store and process information at the molecular level Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Determines inherited characteristics Directs protein synthesis Controls enzyme production Controls metabolism Ribonucleic acid (RNA) Controls intermediate steps in protein synthesis Chemicals and Cells o Biochemical building blocks form functional units called cells Chapter 3 The Cellular Level of Organization An Introduction to Cells Chapter goals: • List the functions of the plasma membrane and the structural features that enable it to perform those functions. • • Describe the organelles of a typical cell, and indicate the specific functions of each. • • Summarize the role of DNA in protein synthesis, cell structure, and cell function. • Explain the functions of the cell nucleus and discuss the nature and importance of the genetic code. Describe the processes of cellular diffusion and osmosis, and explain their role in physiological systems. Describe carrier-mediated transport and vesicular transport mechanisms used by cells to facilitate the absorption or removal of specific substances. Chapter 3 Outline: An Introduction to Cells Cell Theory o Cells are the building blocks of all plants and animals o Cells are the smallest units that perform all vital physiological functions o Each cell maintains homeostasis at the cellular level Types of Cells Sex Cells (Germ Cells) Somatic Cells Extracellular Fluid Cytosol (intracellular fluid) Plasma Membrane Functions o Physical Isolation o Regulation of Exchange with the Environment o Sensitivity to the Environment o Structural Support Membrane Lipids Phospholipid bilayer Hydrophilic heads Hydrophobic fatty-acid tails Barrier to ions and water — soluble compounds Membrane Proteins Integral Proteins Peripheral Proteins Anchoring Proteins (stabilizers) Recognition Proteins (identifiers) Enzymes Receptor Proteins Carrier Proteins Channels Membrane Carbohydrates Proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and glycolipids Functions of the sticky coating o Lubrication and Protection o Anchoring and Locomotion o Specificity in Binding (receptors) o Recognition (immune response) Organelles and the Cytoplasm Cytoplasm Organelles—what is the function of each of the organelles • Nonmembranous organelles • • Include the cytoskeleton, microvilli, centrioles, cilia, ribosomes, and proteasomes Membranous organelles • Include the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, and mitochondria Autolysis Membrane Flow • A continuous exchange of membrane parts by vesicles Mitochondrial Energy Production: Mitochondrion takes chemical energy from food (glucose) • • • • Produces energy molecule ATP Called aerobic metabolism (cellular respiration) Mitochondria use oxygen to break down food and produce ATP Glucose + oxygen + ADP = carbon dioxide + water + ATP Cell Nucleus • Information Storage • • • • DNA Gene/genetic code DNA stores genetic instructions for proteins Genetic code • • The chemical language of DNA instructions Proteins determine cell structure and function DNA RNAProtein • • DNA is transcribed to RNA. RNA is translated to protein Membrane Transport • The plasma (cell) membrane is a barrier, but: • • • Nutrients must get in Products and wastes must get out Permeability • • • impermeable freely permeable selectively permeable Plasma membrane is selectively permeable • Selective permeability restricts materials based on: • Size • Electrical charge • Molecular shape • Lipid solubility Transport through a plasma membrane can be: • Active (requiring energy and ATP) • Passive (no energy required) • • • Diffusion (passive) Carrier-mediated transport (passive or active) Vesicular transport (active) Diffusion • • Concentration is the amount of solute in a solvent Concentration gradient • • Factors Influencing Diffusion • • • • • • Distance the particle has to move Molecule Size Smaller is faster Temperature More heat, faster motion Materials that diffuse through plasma membrane by simple diffusion • • • More solute in one part of a solvent than another Lipid-soluble compounds (alcohols, fatty acids, and steroids) Dissolved gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) Channel-mediated diffusion • Water-soluble compounds and ions • Factors in channel-mediated diffusion • Size • Charge • Interaction with the channel – leak channels Osmosis • • Isotonic Hypotonic (hypo- = below) • • Hypertonic (hyper- = above) A cell in a hypotonic solution: • Gains water • Ruptures (hemolysis of red blood cells) • A cell in a hypertonic solution: • Loses water • Shrinks (crenation of red blood cells) Carriers and Vesicles • • Carrier-Mediated Transport Characteristics • Specificity • Saturation Limits • Regulation • Facilitated Diffusion • Passive • Carrier proteins transport molecules too large to fit through channel proteins (glucose, amino acids) • Active Transport • Active transport proteins • Require energy Phagocytosis Endocytosis Chapter 4 The Tissue Level of Organization An Introduction to Tissues Chapter Goals: Identify the four major types of tissues in the body and describe their roles. Discuss the types and functions of epithelial tissue. Describe the relationship between form and function for each type of epithelium. Compare the structures and functions of the various types of connective tissues. Describe how cartilage and bone function as a supporting connective tissue. Explain how epithelial and connective tissues combine to form four types of tissue membranes, and specify the functions of each. Describe how connective tissue establishes the framework of the body. Describe the three types of muscle tissue and the special structural features of each type. Discuss the basic structure and role of neural tissue Describe how injuries affect the tissues of the body. Describe how aging affects the tissues of the body. An Introduction to Tissues • Tissues • Structures with discrete structural and functional properties Four types of tissue 1. Epithelial tissue 2. Connective tissue 3. Muscle tissue 4. Neural tissue 1. Epithelial Tissue • Covers exposed ____ • Lines internal ____ • Forms____ 2. Connective Tissue • • • • Fills ____ Supports ____ Transports ____ Stores _____ 3. Muscle Tissue • Specialized for _____ • Skeletal muscle, heart muscle, and walls of hollow organs 4. Neural Tissue • Carries _____ signals from one part of the body to another Characteristics of Epithelia • Functions of Epithelial Tissue 1. 2. 3. 4. Provide Physical Protection Control Permeability Provide ______ Produce Specialized Secretions • Specializations of Epithelial Cells 1. Move fluids over the epithelium (protection) 2. Move fluids through the epithelium (permeability) 3. Produce secretions (protection and messengers) • Polarity 1. Apical surfaces Microvilli increase absorption or secretion Cilia (ciliated epithelium) move fluid 2. Basolateral surfaces • • Maintaining the Integrity of Epithelia Intercellular connections Attachment to the basement membrane Epithelial maintenance and repair Intercellular Connections • Support and communication • Cell junctions (tight, gap, desmosomes) • Form bonds with other cells or extracellular material • Attachment to the Basement Membrane • Epithelial Maintenance and Repair • Epithelia are replaced by division of cells near basement membrane Classification of Epithelia 1. Based on shape • • • Squamous epithelia Cuboidal epithelia Columnar epithelia 2. Based on layers • • Simple epithelium Stratified epithelium Some examples of functions of each of the types of cells • Squamous Epithelia • Simple squamous epithelium • Absorption and diffusion • Stratified squamous epithelium • Protects against attacks • • Keratin protein adds strength and water resistance Cuboidal Epithelia • Simple cuboidal epithelium • Secretion and absorption • • • Stratified cuboidal epithelia • Sweat ducts and mammary ducts Transitional Epithelium • Tolerates repeated cycles of stretching and recoiling and returns to its previous shape without damage • • Appearance changes as stretching occurs Situated in regions of the urinary system (e.g., urinary bladder) Columnar Epithelia • Simple columnar epithelium • Absorption and secretion • Pseudostratified columnar epithelium • Cilia movement • Stratified columnar epithelium • Protection Characteristics of Connective Tissue 1. Specialized cells 2. Solid extracellular protein fibers 3. Fluid extracellular ground substance • The Extracellular Components of Connective Tissue (Fibers and Ground Substance) • Make up the matrix Functions of Connective Tissue • • • • • • Establishing a structural framework for the body Transporting fluids and dissolved materials Protecting delicate organs Supporting, surrounding, and interconnecting other types of tissue Storing energy reserves, especially in the form of triglycerides Defending the body from invading microorganisms Classification of Connective Tissues 1. Connective tissue proper • Connect and protect 2. Fluid connective tissues • Transport 3. Supporting connective tissues • Structural strength Categories of Connective Tissue Proper • Loose connective tissue • More ground substance, fewer fibers • For example, fat (adipose tissue) • Dense connective tissue • More fibers, less ground substance • For example, tendons Types of Connective Tissue • • • • • • • • • Fibroblasts Fibrocytes Adipocytes Mesenchymal cells Macrophages Mast cells Lymphocytes Microphages Melanocytes Know some examples of some of the types of connective tissue: Fibroblasts • The most abundant cell type • Found in all connective tissue proper • Adipocytes • • Fat cells Macrophages • • Large, amoeba-like cells of the immune system Mast Cells • • Stimulate inflammation after injury or infection Lymphocytes • • Specialized immune cells in lymphatic (lymphoid) system Microphages • • Phagocytic blood cells Melanocytes • • Synthesize and store the brown pigment melanin Connective Tissue Fibers 1. Collagen fibers 2. Reticular fibers 3. Elastic fibers • • • • Collagen Fibers • • • • • Most common fibers in connective tissue proper • • • • • Network of interwoven fibers (stroma) • • • • Contain elastin Strong and flexible Resist force in one direction For example, tendons and ligaments Reticular Fibers Strong and flexible Resist force in many directions Stabilize functional cells and structures For example, sheaths around organs Elastic Fibers Branched and wavy Return to original length after stretching For example, elastic ligaments of vertebrae Ground Substance • • • Long, straight, and unbranched Is clear, colorless, and viscous Fills spaces between cells and slows pathogen movement Loose Connective Tissues • • The “packing materials” of the body Three types in adults 1. Areolar 2. Adipose 3. Reticular • Areolar Tissue • • • • • • Least specialized Open framework Viscous ground substance Elastic fibers Holds blood vessels and capillary beds • For example, under skin (subcutaneous layer) Adipose Tissue • Contains many adipocytes (fat cells) • 2 types of adipose tissue • 1. White fat 2. Brown fat Reticular Tissue • • • • Provides support Complex, three-dimensional network Supportive fibers (stroma) Reticular organs • Spleen, liver, lymph nodes, and bone marrow • Dense Connective Tissues • Connective tissues proper, tightly packed with high numbers of collagen or elastic fibers • Dense regular connective tissue • Dense irregular connective tissue • Elastic tissue • Dense Regular Connective Tissue • Tightly packed, parallel collagen fibers • Tendons attach _______ to bones • Ligaments connect bone to bone and stabilize organs • Dense Irregular Connective Tissue • Interwoven networks of collagen fibers • Layered in skin • Around cartilage • Around bones • Form capsules around some organs • Elastic Tissue • Fluid Connective Tissues • • • • Made of elastic fibers • For example, elastic ligaments of spinal vertebrae Blood and lymph Watery matrix of dissolved proteins • Formed elements of blood • Red blood cells (erythrocytes) • White blood cells ________ • Platelets Extracellular • Plasma • Interstitial fluid • Lymph Supporting Connective Tissues o Support Soft Tissues and Body Weight Cartilage o Gel-type ground substance o For shock absorption and protection Bone Calcified (made rigid by calcium salts, minerals) For weight support o o Cartilage Matrix • • Proteoglycans derived from chondroitin sulfates • No blood vessels Chondrocytes produce antiangiogenesis factor Outer, fibrous layer (for strength) Inner, cellular layer (for growth and maintenance) Ground substance proteins • Chondrocytes (cartilage cells) surrounded by lacunae (chambers) Cartilage Structure Types of Cartilage 1. 2. 3. Hyaline cartilage Elastic cartilage Fibrocartilage (fibrous cartilage) Hyaline Cartilage • Stiff, flexible support • Reduces friction between bones Elastic Cartilage • Supportive but bends easily Fibrocartilage (Fibrous Cartilage) • Limits _________ • Prevents bone-to-bone contact • Pads knee joints Bone or Osseous Tissue • • Strong • • • Physical barriers Resists shattering (flexible collagen fibers) • Bone Cells = ___________ Membranes Line or cover portions of the body Consist of: o An epithelium o Supported by connective tissue Four Types of Membranes 1. Mucous membranes 2. Serous membranes 3. Cutaneous membrane 4. Synovial membranes Mucous Membranes • • • Line passageways that have external connections To reduce friction To facilitate absorption and excretion Serous Membranes • • • • Line cavities not open to the outside Are thin but _________ reduce friction Have a parietal portion covering the cavity • Have a visceral portion (serosa) covering the organs o Three Serous Membranes 1. Pleura 2. Peritoneum 3. Pericardium Cutaneous Membrane • • Is skin, surface of the body Thick, _______, and dry Synovial Membranes • • • Line moving, articulating joint cavities Produce synovial fluid (lubricant) Protect the ends of bones Internal Framework of the Body • Connective Tissues 1. Provide strength and _____ 2. Maintain positions of internal organs 3. Provide routes for blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves • • • Fasciae The body’s framework of connective tissue Layers and wrappings that support or surround organs Muscle Tissue • Specialized for contraction • Produces all body movement • Three types of muscle tissue 1. Skeletal muscle tissue • Large body muscles responsible for _______ 2. Cardiac muscle tissue • Found only in the ____________ 3. Smooth muscle tissue • Found in walls of hollow, contracting organs (blood vessels; urinary bladder; respiratory, digestive, and reproductive tracts) Classification of Muscle Cells • Striated • • • • • Nonstriated single nucleus multinucleate voluntarily (consciously) involuntarily (automatically) 1. Skeletal Muscle Cells • • • _____ and thin Usually called muscle fibers Do not divide 2. Cardiac Muscle Cells • • Form branching networks connected at intercalated discs Regulated by pacemaker cells 3. Smooth Muscle Cells • • Small and tapered Can divide and regenerate Neural Tissue • Specialized for conducting electrical impulses • Rapidly senses internal or external environment • Processes information and controls responses • Two Types of Neural Cells 1. Neurons 2. Neuroglia • Parts of a Neuron • • • • Cell body Dendrites Axon Cells restore homeostasis with two processes 1. Inflammation 2. Regeneration 4-10 Tissue Injuries and Repair • Inflammation = Inflammatory Response • The tissue’s first response to injury • Signs and symptoms of the inflammatory response include: • • • • Swelling Redness Heat Pain Can be triggered by: • • Trauma (physical injury) Infection (the presence of harmful pathogens) As cells break down: • • Lysosomes release_____that destroy the injured cell and attack surrounding tissues necrosis Necrotic tissues and cellular debris (pus) accumulate in the wound • • Abscess – pus trapped in an enclosed area Dilation of blood vessels • • • • Increases blood circulation in the area • • • • Plasma diffuses into the area Causes warmth and redness Brings more nutrients and oxygen to the area Removes wastes Causes swelling and pain Phagocytic white blood cells Clean up the area Regeneration • When the injury or infection is cleaned up • Healing (regeneration) begins • Fibrocytes move into necrotic area • Lay down collagen fibers • To bind the area together (scar tissue) • New cells migrate into area • Not all tissues can regenerate • • Epithelia and connective tissues regenerate well Cardiac cells and neurons do not regenerate (or regenerate poorly) Aging and Tissue Structure • • • Speed and efficiency of tissue repair decrease with age, due to: o Slower rate of ______consumption (metabolism) o Hormonal alterations o Reduced physical activity • Chemical and structural tissue changes o Thinning epithelia and connective tissues o Increased bruising and bone _______ o Joint pain and broken bones Cardiovascular disease Mental deterioration Aging and Cancer Incidence • • Cancer rates increase with age Cancer is the #____ cause of death in the United States Chapter 5 The Integumentary System An Introduction to the Integumentary System Chapter Goals: • Describe the main structural features of the epidermis, and explain the functional significance of each. • Explain what accounts for individual differences in skin color, and discuss the response of melanocytes to sunlight exposure. • • • • • Describe the interaction between sunlight and vitamin D3 production. Describe the roles of epidermal growth factor. Describe the structure and functions of the dermis. Describe the structure and functions of the hypodermis. Describe the mechanisms that produce hair, and explain the structural basis for hair texture and color. • Discuss the various kinds of glands in the skin, and list the secretions of those glands. • Describe the anatomical structure of nails, and explain how they are formed. • Summarize the effects of aging on the skin. Use this figure to orient yourself: An Introduction to the Integumentary System • The Integument 1. Cutaneous membrane (skin) 2. Accessory structures • Two Components of the Cutaneous Membrane 1. Outer epidermis • Superficial epithelium (epithelial tissues) 2. Inner dermis • • Connective tissues Accessory Structures • Originate in the ____ • Extend through the ______ to skin surface • Give examples of accessory structures • Nails • Connections • Cardiovascular system • Blood vessels in the dermis • Nervous system • Sensory receptors for pain, touch, and temperature • Hypodermis (Superficial Fascia or Subcutaneous Layer) • Loose _____ tissue • Below the dermis • Functions of Skin • • • • Protection of ____ Excretion of ______ Maintenance of _______ Production of ___________ An Introduction to the Integumentary System • Functions of Skin • • • • • Production of keratin Synthesis of vitamin ____ Storage of ______ Detection of touch, _______ The Epidermis • Avascular means what? • ________ squamous epithelium • where does this layer get nutrients from? Cells of the Epidermis • Keratinocytes • Thin Skin • Has ___ layers of keratinocytes and covers what parts of the body? • Thick Skin • Has ___ layers of keratinocytes and covers what parts of the body? • Structures of the Epidermis • • The five strata of keratinocytes From basal lamina to free surface 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. • Stratum basale Stratum spinosum Stratum granulosum Stratum lucidum Stratum corneum Stratum Basale • • • • Is attached to basement membrane Forms a strong bond between epidermis and dermis Forms epidermal ridges (e.g., fingerprints) Dermal papillae (tiny mounds) • Increase the area of basement membrane • Strengthen attachment between epidermis and dermis • Has many basal cells • Specialized Cells of Stratum Basale-function? • Merkel cells • Melanocytes • Stratum Spinosum — the “spiny layer” • Contain dendritic (Langerhans) cells, active in immune response • Stratum Granulosum — the “grainy layer” • Keratin • A tough, fibrous protein • Makes up hair and nails • Keratohyalin • Dense granules • Cross-link keratin fibers • Cells of Stratum Granulosum • Produce protein fibers • Dehydrate and die • Stratum Lucidum — the “clear layer” • Found only in thick skin • Stratum Corneum — the “horn layer” • Exposed surface of skin • Keratinization • Occurs on all exposed skin surfaces except eyes • Perspiration • Insensible perspiration • Sensible perspiration • Dehydration results: • Hydration: • Skin Color is Influenced by Two Pigments 1. Carotene 2. Melanin • • Carotene • • • • • _____ pigment Found in _______ Accumulates in epidermal cells and fatty tissues of the dermis Can be converted to vitamin A Melanin • • • • • • Blood circulation (red blood cells) Yellow-brown or black pigment Produced by ________- in stratum basale Stored in transport vesicles (melanosomes) Transferred to keratinocytes Function of Melanocytes Capillaries and Skin Color • Cyanosis • Illness and Skin Color-Vitiligo • Production of Vitamin D3 • Insufficient vitamin D3 Can cause _________ • Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF) • growth factor • Used in laboratories to grow skin grafts • Functions of EGF • Accelerates keratin production • Stimulates epidermal repair • Stimulates glandular secretion • The Dermis • • • • Located between epidermis and subcutaneous layer Anchors epidermal accessory structures (hair follicles, sweat glands) Two components 1. Outer papillary layer 2. Deep reticular layer The Papillary Layer • Consists of areolar tissue • Contains smaller capillaries, lymphatics, and sensory neurons • Has dermal papillae projecting between epidermal ridges • The Reticular Layer • • • • • Consists of dense irregular connective tissue Contains larger blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerve fibers Contains collagen and elastic fibers Contains connective tissue proper Dermatitis • An inflammation of the papillary layer • Caused by infection, radiation, mechanical irritation, or chemicals (e.g., poison ivy) • Characterized by itch or pain • Dermal Strength and Elasticity • • Presence of two types of fibers 1. Collagen fibers 2. Elastic fibers Skin Damage • Sagging and wrinkles (reduced skin elasticity) are caused by: • Stretch marks are caused by: • The Dermal Blood Supply • • • • • Cutaneous plexus Papillary plexus Venous plexus Contusion Innervation of the Skin • Nerve fibers in skin control • The Hypodermis (Subcutaneous Layer) • • • • • • • • Lies below the _______ Stabilizes the__________ Allows separate _______ Made of elastic areolar and adipose tissues Connected to the reticular layer of integument by connective tissue fibers Few capillaries and no vital __________ Deposits of Subcutaneous Fat Hair, Hair Follicles, Sebaceous Glands, Sweat Glands, and Nails • Located in ? • Project through ? • Human Body • The human body is covered with hair, except: • Functions of Hair • The Hair Follicle • • • • • Located deep in dermis Produces nonliving hairs Wrapped in a dense connective tissue sheath Base is surrounded by sensory nerves (root hair plexus) Accessory Structures of Hair • Arrector pili • ______ smooth muscle • Produces “goose bumps” • Sebaceous glands • Lubricate the hair • Control _________ • Regions of the Hair • Hair root • Hair shaft • Hair Production • Begins at the _________ of a hair follicle, deep in the _____ • The hair papilla contains _______ • The hair bulb produces hair _________ • A layer of dividing basal cells • Produces hair structure • Pushes hair up and out of skin • Hair Shaft Structure • Medulla • Cortex • Cuticle • Keratin • As hair is produced, it is keratinized • Layers in the Follicle • Internal root sheath • External root sheath • Glassy membrane • Hair Growth Cycle • Growing hair vs. club hair • New hair growth cycle • Follicle becomes active • Produces new hair • Club hair is shed • Types of Hairs • Vellus hairs • Terminal hairs • Hair Color • Produced by ____ • Determined by ____________ • • Exocrine Glands in Skin • Sebaceous Glands (oil glands) • Holocrine glands • Secrete ____________ • Two Types of Sweat Glands 1. Apocrine glands 2. Merocrine (eccrine) glands Types of Sebaceous (Oil) Glands • Simple branched alveolar glands • Associated ______ • Sebaceous follicles • Discharge directly onto ________ • Sebum • Other Integumentary Glands 1. Mammary glands 2. Ceruminous glands • Control of Glands • Autonomic nervous system (ANS) • Works simultaneously over entire body • Merocrine sweat glands Sweating occurs locally • Thermoregulation • Regulates body temperature • Nails • Protect ________ • Made of dead cells packed with __________ • Nail Production • Occurs in a _________ near the bone called the nail root • Structure of a Nail • • • • • • Lunula Sides of nails Skin beneath the distal free edge of the nail Visible nail emerges: • From the eponychium (cuticle) • At the tip of the proximal nail fold Repair of the Integument Following an Injury • • • • • • • • Nail body Bleeding occurs Mast cells trigger inflammatory response A scab stabilizes and protects the area cells migrate around the wound Macrophages clean the area Fibroblasts and endothelial cells move in Fibroblasts produce scar tissue • Inflammation decreases, clot disintegrates • Fibroblasts strengthen scar tissue Effects of Aging • • • • • • • Epidermal thinning Decreased numbers of _____ Decreased _________ production Decreased melanocyte ________ Decreased glandular _________ Reduced blood ________ Decreased _______of hair follicles • Reduction of ________ fibers • Decreased hormone ______ • __________repair rate • Why is the Integumentary System so important? Download 1. Science 2. Chemistry chapter_outline1_5.doc 4-2 Epithelial Tissue - Anatomy and Physiology 4 The Tissue Level of 4-5 Supporting Connective Tissues detailed lecture outline Ch4 lec notes Martini 9e.doc Connective Tissue Tissues Acne The Integumentary System - Sinoe Medical Association studylib © 2017 DMCA Report