Download Eng. 241 Introduction to Drama

Riyadh Community College
Department of Arts and Education
Course Syllabus
for (Eng 241) Appreciating Drama
Credit Hours 2
Instructor’s Name : Dr. A. Abu-Swailem
Time: Tuesday, 10-12
First Term 1428/29
Texts: Types of Drama: Plays and Essays
Sophoccles, Oedipus the King
- Final Exam
- Midterms
- Class work
Total
60%
30%
10 %
100
Time Break up:
Week
Topic
Presentation
Assignment
Reading
Aristotle’s
Poetics
1
Introduction to Literary forms
General Discussion
2
Aristotle’s Poetics
3
Tragedy, imitation, plot,
structure of plot
Presentation and
Discussion
Discussion
4 &5
6)
Character, Tragic hero,
hamartia, peripetia, and
anagnarosis
Presentation
Aristotl’s criteria of tragic
hero
First Mid –term
Presentation
Discussion
7 &8)
Presentation
King Oedipus.
Analysis and Discussion
Reading King
Oedipus
9)
10)
&11
12
King Oedipus.
Analysis and Discussion
Presentation
Presentation
King Oedipus.
Analysis and Discussion
13
King Oedipus.
Analysis and Discussion
Presentation
Second Mid Term
!4
15
Presentation
King Oedipus.
Analysis and Discussion
16
Group Discussion
General Revision
And orientation about final
exams
AN OUTLINE OF ARISTOTLE'S POETICS
Chapter
1. Imitation:
Epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, music of
the flute and lyre ...are all moles of imitation. Imitation is
produced by rhythm, language, or harmony, either singly or in
combination,
2.
Objects of Imitation:
Men in action. The poet must represent men as better than
in real life, or as worse, or as they are. Comedy aims at
representing men as worse', tragedy as better than in actual
life.
3.
Manner of Imitation:
The same story may be presented
1) In narrative and dialogue.
2) In narrative alone.
3) In action
4.
Origin and Development;
Poetry sprang from two causes:
1) Instinct of imitation.
2) Delight in results;
Men enjoy seeing a likeness; in contemplating it they find
themselves learning or inferring. Pleasure is sometimes due to the
execution, coloring, etc.
The graver spirits imitated noble actions, good men. The more
trivial imitated actions o' meaner persons (composed satires).
Tragedy and comedy were at first improvisation,
Tragedy
originated
with
dithyramb.
Comedy
originated with phallic song.
Aeschylus:
Raised number of actors from one 1o two; reduced the
;
Choral element in tragedy; started the spoken (non-choral) part on its way to
become the most important.
Sophocles: Increased actors to three; introduced painted scenery.
Also, tragedy evolved by discarding short plots
for
those
diction,
by
of
greater
increasing
compass,
number
of
by
improving
episodes
$.
Rise of Comedy:
Comedy is an imitation of cheaper, more ordinary persons, not entirely
base, but embodiments of that part of the ugly which excites laughter, that
which has some flaw or ugliness which causes neither pain -nor harm.
Comparison of Epic Poetry and Tragedy:
They agree in that both imitate in verse characters of a higher type. They
differ in that epic poetry admits but one kind of meter, is narrative in form,
and has no limits of time. Tragedy endeavors, as far as possible, to confine
itself to a single revolution of the sun, or but slightly to exceed this limit.
6.
Definition of Tragedy:
Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete and of a
certain magnitude; in language embellished with each kind of artistic
ornament, the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play; in the
form of action, not of narrative; with incidents arousing pity and fear,
wherewith to accomplish its catharsis of such emotions (S. H. Butcher
translation)
Tragedy, then, is an imitation, through action rather than narration, of a
serious, complete, and ample action, by means of language rendered
pleasant at different places in the constituent parts by each of the aids used
to make language more delightful, in which imitation there is also effected
through pity and fear its catharsis of these and similar emotions, (P. H. Epps
translation). Every tragedy must have six parts:
Plot, Character, Diction, Thought, Spectacle, Melody.
Plot:
The arrangement of the incidents. Character:
That by which we determine what kinds of men are
being presented. Thought:
That which manifests itself in all the characters say
when they present an argument or even make evident an
opinion.
Most important of all is the structure of the incidents (plot). For tragedy is
an imitation, not of men, but of action and of life, and life consists in action.
Character determines men's qualities, but it is by their actions that they are
happy or the reverse.. Without action there cannot be a tragedy; there may
be without character. The most powerful elements of emotional interest in.
tragedy — peripeteia or "reversal of the situation," and "recognition" scenes
(anagnoresis) — are parts of the plot.
Definition of Tragedy:
Order of importance:
Plot is the first principle and, as it were, the soul of a tragedy.
Character holds second place.
Thought is third in order —that -is, the faculty of saying what is
possible and pertinent in given circumstances.
(Character is that which reveals moral purpose, showing what kind
of things a man chooses or avoids, Thought, on the other hand, is
found where something is proved to be or not to be, or a general
maxim is enunciated.)
Diction comes fourth —the expression of. the meaning in words. Its
essence is the same both in verse and prose.
Melody ...holds the chief place along the embellishments.
Spectacle . . .has, indeed, an emotional
attraction of its own, but, of all the parts, it is
the least artistic and connected least with the
art of poetry.
7.
Proper Structure of Plot (the first and .most important thing in
tragedy):
Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is complete and whole and of a
certain magnitud'3; for there may be a whole that is wanting in magnitude.
A Whole is that which has a beginning, a middle, and an end.
A Beginning is that which of necessity does not follow anything, while
something by nature follows or results from it.
An End is that which naturally, of necessity, or most generally follows
something else but nothing follows it.
A Middle is that which follows and is followed by something.
A well-constructed plot, therefore; must neither begin nor,
7. (Cont'd)
end at haphazard but conform to Epic poetry, tragedy,
comedy, dithyrambic poetry, music of the flute and lyre ...are
all moles of imitation. Comedy aims at representing men as
worse', tragedy as better than in actual life.
Proper Structure of Plot
A beautiful object. must also be of a certain magnitude. . .a magnitude
which may easily be embraced in one view, so in the plot a certain length
is necessary, and a length which can be easily embraced by the memory.
The proper magnitude is comprised with such limits that the sequence of
events, according to the law of probability or necessity, will admit of a
change from bad fortune to good, or from good fortune to bad,
8.
Unity of Plot:
Does not, as some persons think consist in the unity of the hero, for
countless things happen to one person some of which in no way constitute
a unit. In just the same way there are many actions of an individual which
do not constitute a single action.
The plot being an imitation of an action, must imitate one action and that a
whole; and the different parts of the actions must be so related to each
other that if any part is changed or taken away the whole will be altered
and disturbed.
9.
The Poet and the Historian Differ
...one relates what has happened,, the other what may happen. Poetry tends
to express the universal, history the particular. By the universal, I mean
ho-w a person of a certain type will on occasion speak or act, according to
the law of probability or necessity.
The tragic poet must not at all costs keep to the received legends, which
are the usual subjects of tragedy, Indeed, it would be absurd to attempt it.
The poet or "maker" should be the maker of plots rather than of ver.^-3
since he is a poet because he imitates, and what he imitates are actions.
10.
Types of Plots: Simple or Complex,
Simple when the change of fortune takes place without reversal of the
situation and without recognition.
Complex when the change is accompanied by such reversal or by
recognition, or both. These last should arise from-the internal structure of
the plot:., so that what follows should be the necessary or probable result
of the preceding action. It makes all the^: difference whether any given
event is a case of proper hoc or post hoc.
11.
Parts of the Plot
"Reversal of the situation" (peripeteia): A train of action produces the
opposite of the effect intended, as the revelation of the messenger in
Oedipus..
"Recognition" (or "discovery" —anagnarosis): A change by which those
marked by the plot for good or for bad fortune pass from a state of
ignorance into a state of knowledge which disposes them either to
friendship or enmity towards each other. The best form of recognition is
coincident with a reversal of the situation, as in Oedipus,
"The Tragic Experience" (or "scene of suffering"):
A destructive or painful action, such as death on the stage, bodily agony,
wounds, and the like.
12.
Parts of Tragedy (quantitative; possibly an interpolation):
1) Prologue
2) Episode
3) Exode
4) Choral odes - a. Parodus, b. Stasima.
Some tragedies have in addition:
5) Songs from the stage
6) Commoi
Prologue — That entire part of the tragedy which precedes the entrance
ode of the chorus.
Episode — That entire part of the tragedy which comes between choral
odes.
Exode — That entire part of the tragedy after which ' there is no
complete choral ode.
Parodus —The first complete ode of the chorus.
Stasimon —A song of the chorus without anapests and'. trochaics»
Commus — An antiphonal lamentation between chorus and
one or more of the actors,
13.
The Ideal Structure For Tragedy:
A perfect tragedy should be arranged on the complex plan;
should excite pity and fear. The change of fortune must not be the
spectacle of a virtuous man brought from prosperity to adversity (this
shocks us); nor a bad man passing from adversity to prosperity [alien to
the spirit of tragedy); nor the downfall of the the villain (would inspire
neither pity nor fear), .but.. the character between these two extremes — a
man who is not eminently good.
and just, yet whose misfortune is brought about by hamartia (the socalled "tragic flaw." Translated by Butcher as "error or frailty," by Epps
as "inadequacy or positive fault." Some scholars advocate "trait," or
"tragic trait."). He must be one who is highly renowned and prosperous
— a personage like Oedipus, Thyestes, or other illustrious men of such
families.
It is necessary for the well-arranged plot
1) to be single rather than double in outcome;
2) for the change of fortune to be from good to bad but not from bad
to good;
3) for this change to be brought about not by rascality but by
hamartia, either in a person of the type just mentioned, or in a
better, rather than an inferior person.
The best tragedies are founded within the story of a few houses ... and
those others who have done or suffered something terrible,
In the second rank comes the kind of tragedy which has a double thread
of plot and an opposite catastrophe for the good and for the bad. The
pleasure derived is not
The true tragic pleasure — it is proper is proper rather to comedy.
14.
from
Pity and Terror arise best from the incidents of the plot, not
spectacular means,
The most impressive tragic plots involve those who are near and dear to
each other, as members of a family, in deeds of violence and horror,
In action, the doer
1) may know what he is doing, to one who knows who he is;
2) May be ignorant and discover the tie of kinship later.
3) may discover the relations! Relationship and withdraw from the
deed.
4) may be aware of what he is about to do and then
refrain. Order of preference: 3, 2, 1, 4,
Poets are compelled to have recourse to those houses whose histories
contain moving incidents like these.
Character must be good (as revealed in purpose of speech and actions, and choices made),
Character must be fitting (True to type. It is not fitting for a woman to be
.manly or clever").
And just, yet whose misfortune is brought about by hamartia (the socalled "tragic flaw." Translated by Butcher as "error or frailty," by Epps
as "inadequacy or positive fault." Some scholars advocate "trait," or
"tragic trait."). He must be one who is highly renowned and prosperous
•— a personage like Oedipus, Thyestes, or other illustrious men of such
families.
It is necessary for the well-arranged plot
1) to be single rather than double in outcome;
2) for the change of fortune to be from good to bad but not from bad
to good;
3) For this change to be brought about not by rascality but by
hamartia, either in a person of the type just mentioned, or in a
better, rather than an inferior person.
The best tragedies are founded w the story not a few houses .., and those
others who have done or suffered something terrible,
In the second rank comes the kind of tragedy which has a double thread
of plot and an opposite catastrophe for the good and for the bad. The
pleasure derived is not
The true tragic pleasure — it is proper rather to comedy.
14.
Pity and Terror arise best from the incidents of the plot, not from
spectacular means.
The most impressive tragic plots involve those who are near and dear to each other, as
members of a family, in deeds of violence and horror.
In action, the doer
1) may know what he is doing, to one who knows who he is;
2) may be ignorant and discover the tie of kinship later.
3) May discover the relations] relationship and withdraw from the
deed.
4) may be aware of what he is about to do and then
refrain. Order of preference: 3, 2, 1, 4.
Poets are compelled to have recourse to those houses whose
histories contain moving incidents like these.
15
Character: Four qualities are desired.
Character must be good (as revealed in purpose of speech and actions, and
choices made).
Character must be fitting (True t) type. It is not fitting for a woman to be
manly or clever).
Character must be true to life.
Character must be consistent (if an inconsistent type, he must be
consistently inconsistent).
In the structure of the plot, the poet should always aim at either the
necessary or the probable.
The unraveling of the plot (denouement), no less than complication, must
arise out of the plot itself; it must not be brought about by the Deus ex
Machina.
Within the action there must be nothing irrational. If the irrational cannot
be excluded, it should be outside the scope of tragedy (Oedipus).
Tragedy is an imitation of persons who are above the common level ... so
the poet, in representing men who are irascible or indolent, or have other
defects of character, must raise them, in spite of such traits, to a fitting
nobility.
16.
Kinds of "Recognition":
1. By signs (scars, etc., the least artistic form).
2. Through inventions of the poet '(hence, wanting in art).
3. Through memory, when the sight of some object awakens a feeling.
Chapter
4. Through a process of reasoning.
$, From false inference (Odysseus and the bow).
The best form of recognition is that which arises from the incidents themselves, where '^he
startling discovery results from what is probable, -^Next, come recognitions by process of
reasoning,
17.
In Constructing the Plot, the Poet Should:
1. Keep the whole situation visualized before him.
2. Work out his play with appropriate gestures.
3. First sketch its general outline, then fill in the episodes and amplify in
detail, making sure that they are inherently related to the plo-fc,
Chapter
18.
Tragedy Falls Into Two Parts:
1) Complication; and 2) Unraveling, or denouement.
1, Complication:
All that extends from the beginning to the part which marks
the turning point to good or bad fortune.
2» Unraveling (denouement);
That which extends from the° beginning of the change to
the end.
Four Kinds of Tragedy:
1. Complex - depending entirely on reversal and recognition.
2. Pathetic - tragedies of suffering (Ajax).
3. Ethical - character tragedies (Peleus). 4* Simple
-
depending upon spectacle.
The poet should endeavor to combine all poetic elements, or, failing
that, the greatest number and the most important.
To compare tragedies, look at the plots, decide if they have similar
complications and denouements.
Tragedy should not employ the epic type of plot - one •with many
legends (and thus plots within plots),
The Chorus should be regarded as one of the actors. It should be an integral part of the
whole and share in the action, in the canner not of Euripides but of Sophocles.
19.
Thought (or the Intellectual Element) may be defined as:
All those things which must be produced by speech, such as presentation of a case,
disproving a charge or ameliorating a situation,- arousing the tragic elements of fear, pity,
anger, and the like, and also curtailing and enlarging upon matters.
Diction falls largely within the domain of the art of delivery rather than
poetry.
20.
An Analysis of Parts of Speech (Probably; Interpolated)
21.
An Analysis of Poetic Diction:
Words, modes of speech, metaphor, gender of nouns (probably interpolated)*
22.
The Function of Diction Is:
1. To make clear what is said. 2« To lift it above the level,, of the
ordinary.
That diction is lofty and raided above the commonplace which employs unusual
words —- a rare word, metaphorical words, lengthened words, anything that
differs from the normal idiom, a certain infusion of these elements is necessary to
style. Yet a style composed wholly of such words is either a riddle or a jargon.
The unusual words will raise the diction above the commonplace and mean, while
the use of familiar words will make for clarity. In any mod-? of poetic diction
there must be moderation.
The greatest thing by far is to have a command of metaphor ... it is the mark of
genius, for to make good metaphors implies an eye for resemblances.
23.
24.
A Discussion of Narrative Poetry
The Element of the Wonderful is Required in Tragedy
The irrational, on which the x-wonderful depends for its chief effects, has wider
scope in epic poetry. The wonderful is pleasing ... everyone tells a story with
some additions of his own, knowing that his hearers wil.1 like it. Homer has
chiefly taught other poets the art of telling lies skillfully. The poet should prefer
probable impossibilities to in-probable possibilities. Everything irrational
should, if possible, be excluded; or it should lie outside the action of the play,
not within the drama.
Diction should be elaborated ii the pauses of the action where there is no
expression of character or thought, for conversely, character and thought are
merely obscured by a diction that is over brilliant.
25.
The Poet Must of Necessity Imitate One of Three Objects:
1. Things as they were or are,
2. Things as they are said or thought to be or
3. Things as they ought to be.
•If he describes the impossible, he is guilty of an 'error^ but the error
may be justified if the end of the \art.b6 'thereby attained— that is, if the
effect of this on any ot.h'6r ^part of .the poem .s thus rendered more •
striking-!. Further, if the description is not true to fact, the poet may perhaps
reply, "Put -tire objects are as they ought to be"; just as Sophocles said
that he drew men 'as they ought to be; Euripides, as they are-.
In examining whether what has been said or done by someone is poetically right or
not, we must not look merely to the particular act or saying, and ask whether it is
poetically good or bad. We must also consider by whom it is said or done, to
whom, when, by what means, or for what ends; whether, for instance, it be to
secure a greater good, or avert a greater evil.
In general, the impossible must be justified by reference to artistic requirements, or
to the higher reality, or to received opinion. With respect to the requirements of art,
a probable impossibility is to be preferred to a thing improbable and yet possible.
There are five sources from which critical objections are drawn.
Things are
censured either as impossible, or irrational, or morally hurtful, or contradictory, or
contrary to artistic correctness.
26.
On Whether the Epic or the Tragic Mode of ' Imitation Is the Higher:
The alleged defects of tragedy .'re not essential to it. Tragedy has all of the elements
of epic, accomplishes its aim with greater economy of length, and is more unified
— it plainly follows that tragedy is the higher art, as attaining its end more
perfectly.
.
:
Guide to Drama
Basic definition of drama
dialogue
action
gesture
Two types of drama: Tragedy and Comedy
Ancient Greek Tragedy
tragic hero/heroine
hamatria
hybris
human fallibility
aspects of Greek tragedy
crisis of feeling
catharsis
reversal
Modern tragedy
Ancient Greek Comedy
aspects of Greek comedy
Types of comedy from ancient to modern times
romantic
manners
farce
satire
absurd
Analyzing Drama
aspects of drama
setting
structure
characterization
theme
dramatic irony
Basic Definition
Drama is a form of literature acted out by performers. Performers work with the
playwright, director, set and lighting designers to stage a show.
Live actors act as someone else called a character
.
A play consists of :
dialogue - where characters talk with each other
action - what characters do in the play
gesture - what the character shows through motion(s) and expression(s )
A script, written by a playwright, gives the actors words and cues to perform
the dialogue, actions and gestures of their characters on stage.
As a reader, you can only imagine what the gestures, expressions and voices of
the characters are like. Remember you must imagine the "sounds," actions and
scenery when you are reading a script.
Reading a play is like listening to a conversation, and using your imagination
to guess at what the characters are like. This conversation is what actors will
perform on the stage and will give you an idea of how other people, including
the playwright, imagined the play to be.
Drama differs from short stories and novels because it is made to be performed
by different actors in different locations throughout time. While the script
remains the same, actors' interpretations of a single role may differ.
If you have read a play and then see it, you may be surprised because the play
may be different from what you had imagined. This is similar to reading a story
and then seeing a movie of that story-- it is rarely exactly what you had
imagined
.
There are two basic types of drama:
Tragedy - a serious, solemn play based on an important social, personal
or religious issue .
Comedy - a play that shows the humorous actions of characters when they
try to solve social, personal, or religious problems .
Some of the first forms of documented drama come from ancient Greece. The
ancient Greeks performed both tragedies and comedies.
Ancient tragedy - invented by the ancient Greeks to show the actions of a tragic
hero or heroine. (Ex: Oedipus Rex).
tragic hero/heroine - the protagonist, or main character, in the play.
Aspects of the Greek tragic hero :
he/she must be of noble birth or hold an important social position
he/she is generally virtuous
he/she has a desire to do good deeds
he/she dies in the end of the play
The hero/heroine seems "better" than the other character(s), but there is a
fate which overpowers this "good" character.
Poor judgment by the protagonist (hero/heroine) causes a fall from grace and
social ranking. Poor judgment is a tragic flaw, or error, called hamatria. It
leads to personal catastrophe and unintended harm to others.
Hybris (hubris), which means excessive pride or arrogance, is the most common
type of hamatria.
A hero/heroine's misfortune is an example of human fallibility (human's
tendency to fail.)
Learning from the mistakes of others was an important part of Greek tragedy.
Aspects of tragedy in Greek drama :
crisis of feeling - painful or harmful experience that may upset or depress
the audience .
catharsis/purgation - the audience cleanses their emotions. For example ,
they may feel uplifted and/or get a new sense of spiritual understanding or
tragic pleasure .
reversal/peripeteia - the hero/heroine goes through a significant change in
fortune for the worse. Reversal may happen after a discovery
( anagnorisis,)or a recognition of something previously not known to the
hero/heroine .
Example :
In Sophocles' Oedipus Rex, Oedipus experiences a reversal when he gets the
message that his father, Polybos, has died of old age. Oedipus is at first
relieved to find out that the prophesy that he would kill his own father
was wrong. Then his dread is renewed when the same message reveals that
Polybos was not his biological father (Kennedy 871 .)
( Comedies can have reversals too, but in comedy, the change is almost always
for the better.)
Modern tragedy - unlike Greek tragedy, the protagonist is often a common or
middle class person, not high born, noble or important. Ordinary people
exemplify basic issues of social and personal conflict.
Ancient Greek Comedy - performed to show the humorous actions of one or more
characters as they attempt to solve a problem.
Aspects of Greek Comedy :
required action and conflict that led to a happy ending .
included ridiculing and violent personal attacks on contemporary
personalities .
involved acting out of bawdy personal and social relationships .
as opposed to ancient Greek tragedy, a change in fortune is almost always
for the better .
Types of comedy from ancient to modern times:
romantic - involves a love affair that does not run smoothly but ends happily .
Example :
Shakespeare's Midsummer Night's Dream
the movie, Pretty Woman
manners - portrays upper-class society involved in witty repartee that focuses
on their relationships and "affairs." A comedy of manners focuses on the
behavior of men and women who violate the rules and manners of upper-class
society .
Example :
Oscar Wilde's The Importance of Being Earnest
farce - "low comedy" with lots of "belly laughs" that uses quick physical
action to induce immediate laughter. The verbal humor is often crude or
ridiculous. Farce is sometimes based on incongruities of character and action ;
a character doing something that is completely unlike what we would expect of
them .
Example :
In Shakespeare uses farcical humor in his play, Twelfth Night. Malvolio, a
very prude, self-important character, is convinced to wear funny clothing
and act like a fool (Meyer 900 .)
Most of Jim Carey's comedy is farce. His comedy is based on quick physical
humor and often crude dialogue .
satire - mean jokes (barbs) are aimed at people, ideas or things in order to
improve, correct, or prevent something .
Example :
Again, the character Malvolio in Shakespeare's play, Twelth Night is a
satirical character. He is held up for scrutiny and ridicule by other
characters and the audience because of his self-important, pompous attitude .
Shakespeare reveals Malvolio's faults, and shows him to be pathetic .
absurd (black) - unusual, some would say weird or uncomfortable, comedy that
portrays the world as unstable. The action includes improbable events with
highly unpredictable characters. Black comedy is very different from other
comedies in that this type tends to end unhappily .
Example :
True West
The movies, Fargo, and Pulp Fiction
ANALYZING DRAMA
How you react to a play will depend on:
your individual perspective of the world
your sense of humor
you political attitudes
your moral values
Analysis begins by asking what factors about the play shaped your response.
Aspects of drama that help you to enjoy and interpret a play :
setting
structure
characterization
theme
dramatic irony
setting - The scenic design and props. These add meaning and historical
context to what characters do and say in the drama. Some components of the
setting are as follows :
"
the orchestra, the performance and dancing area for actors and chorus ,
which was utilized by Greek theater to inform audiences of what happens
off stage." (i.e. no murders or suicides were shown; instead, a messenger
would inform the characters of the news .)
lighting is used to show illusion of time, highlight an action, or
emphasize an event or character. Lighting is more complicated today than
it was in ancient times, because plays used to be shown only outside .
costumes are used to portray age, class, profession or ethnic culture .
structure - The way a play is organized into sections. Most plays are
divided into acts and scenes .
Ancient Greek drama did not use acts and scenes but had a system of
divisions which were:
prologue (exposition) - the introductory speech given to the audience at
the beginning of the play .
parados (entry of chorus) - the parados is the song chanted by the chorus
on their entry. Their song is usually about the action of the play and
helps to build emotion in the audience .
episodes - modern drama would call these scenes, or acts. There are
usually four or five episodes. Each episode consists of dialogue and
action that takes place in one location at one time. Each is separated by
a choric interlude, or the strophe and antistrophe .
choric interlude - immediately follows each of the episodes. Like the
parados, these are songs or odes performed by the chorus. They serve to
comment on the characters' actions, express emotion, and explain the plot .
Also, because Greek theatre had no curtain, the interludes indicate a
change of scene .
strophe and antistrophe - these are terms that describe the chorus '
movement from one side of the stage to the other. For the strophe, they
are on one side of the stage, and for the antistrophe, they move to the
other. When the chorus speaks outside of these interludes, directly with
the characters, their lines are said by only one member of the chorus ,
their leader (Miller 38 .)
exodus - the final scene and resolution .
The ancient Greek episodic structural pattern gradually evolved into a five
part division of action. By the 16th century, most plays had five acts with
as many scenes as needed. The playwright determines how many acts and scenes
the play will have.
A traditional play follows the structural pattern of a traditional short
story or novel. It has an introduction (exposition), conflict, climax, and a
resolution (denouement.)
characterization - the way the actor portrays the character's qualities and
faults .
The actor plays a role that animates the character's:
traits
moral qualities
physical presence
voice
Qualities of a personality may be either physical and superficial (external )
or psychological and spiritual (internal). Characters can possess both types
of traits.
External characteristics (characteristics that flat, one-dimensional
characters possess:)
names
physical appearance
physical nature
manner of speech and accent
manner of dress
social status
class
education
friends
family
community interests
Internal characteristics (characters that round, multi-dimensional
characters possess:)
thoughts
feelings
Emotions
Types of Characters:
protagonist - the main character of a play, the one who is the center of
action and holds your attention .
antagonist (or villain) - the character who causes problems for the
protagonist. Example :
In Shakespeare's play, Othello, Othello is the protagonist and Iago is
the antagonist (Desdemona can also be considered to be a protagonist .)
In the fairy tale and movie, Cinderella, Cinderella is the protagonist
and her wicked step mother is the antagonist .
foil - the character that acts as the butt of the jokes. Also a character
used to show contrast with the main character .
confidant/confidante - friend or servant of the antagonist or portagonist
who by "listening" provides the audience with a window into what the major
characters are thinking and feeling. Example :
In Othello, Desdemona's nurse acts as her confidant .
In Cinderella, the friendly mice serve as Cinderella's confidants .
stock characters - superficial roles. (Ex: comic, victim, simpleton/fool ,
braggart, pretender .)
theme - the central purpose or message of the play as developed by the
playwright (i.e. the playwright's message for the audience .)
dramatic irony - the contrast between what the character thinks the truth
is and what the audience knows the truth to be. This occurs when the
speaker fails to recognize the irony of his actions. For example, if the
speaker were to put a curse on the murderer without realizing that he
himself is the murderer, then he would have unwittingly cursed himself .
Example :
In Oedipus Rex, Oedipus places a curse on the murderer of Laios, not
realizing that he was actually that murderer. Since the audience has
information of which Othello is ignorant, they recognizes the
significance of Othello's actions, while he does not .
Kennedy, X. J. Literature, An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry and Drama. 3rd
ed. Boston: Little Brown, 1983 .
Meyer, Michael. The Compact Bedford Introduction to Literature. Boston :
Bedford Books, 1997 .
Miller, Jordan Y. The Heath Introduction to Drama. Lexington, MA: D.C .
Health, 1976 .
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