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6. Why was Germany unified under Prussia and not Austria?
In 1815, 39 independent German states stretched north and south from the Baltic Sea to the
Alps, and east and west from the Rhine River to Russia. Political rivals Austria and Prussia
were the most powerful of these German states. By 1871, however, the German statesexcluding Austria and Switzerland-had united into a single nation.
The Congress of Vienna had created the German Confederation in 1815 as a buffer against
future French expansion. This first major step toward German unity established closer
economic ties between the German states and helped pave the way for greater political union.
The German Confederation loosely tied together the numerous German states with a diet
sitting at Frankfurt. Austria dominated the confederation. Its position as head of the diet
eventually brought it into conflict with Prussia. Neither Austria nor the smaller German states
wanted to see a united Germany. Austria feared the economic competition, while the smaller
states feared domination by Prussia.
The largest of the German states, Prussia, had a well-organised government and a strong
economy. Political power in Prussia lay in the hands of aristocratic landowners called Junkers,
but rising business classes demanded a share of political power. To reduce trade barriers
among German lands, the Prussian Junkers called for a Zollverein, or economic union.
Formed in 1834, the Zollverein reduced tariffs and other trade barriers between most of the 39
states, resulting in lower and more uniform prices of goods throughout the confederation. The
Zolleverein also standardised systems of currency, weights, and measures and strengthened
the business classes.
By forming a close economic union, Prussia won an important political victory over Austria.
Just as Sardinia led Italy toward unification, Prussia now directed events that would
eventually unite Germany.
In the German states, popular demonstrations and uprisings (Feb.–March, 1848) led to the
dismissal of unpopular ministers and the calling of a national parliament to draft a constitution
for a united Germany. While the constitution was debated at length, rulers of the German
states were able to recover their authority. By 1849, the Frankfurt Parliament and the
provisional government it established had collapsed and the old order was restored.
In 1861, William I became King of Prussia, succeeding his brother Frederick William IV.
Believing that Prussia could establish its position of leadership in Germany only with a
powerful military force, William planned to expand the army. But liberal German nationalists
feared the Junkers’ control of the army. As a result, their representatives in the Prussian
assembly overwhelmingly defeated new taxes to support a larger army.
Frustrated by the defeat, the king appointed as his new prime minister a man who shared his
views in army reconstruction. The man was Otto von Bismarck. A Junker himself, Bismarck
had served in the Prussian assembly and as ambassador to Russia and France. A brilliant
negotiator, Bismarck embraced the policy of real politick, the right of the state to pursue its
own advantage by any means, including war and the repudiation of treaties.
In September 1862, Bismarck defied the finance committee of the Prussian assembly. He
declared that the great issues of the times would not be decided “by speeches and majority
decisions...but by blood and iron.” When the Lower House refused to approve the new army
budget, Bismarck pushed the program through by simply collecting the necessary taxes
without authorisation.
Bismarck manipulated events and took advantage of opportunities more skillfully than any
other European statesman of the time. Furthermore, he was willing to use the power of the
Prussian army to attain the goals. In the seven years before the establishment of the German
Empire, three wars were fought: the Danish War of 1864 over the issue of SchleswigHolstein, the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, and the Franco-Prussian War of 1871. Each war
laid the foundation for the next, and the three combined were important factors leading to the
outbreak of general war in Europe in 1914.
By inheritance, the Danish king ruled the territories of Schleswig and Holstein. Schleswig’s
population was part German and part Danish; Holstein’s was entirely German. When King
Christian IX proclaimed Schleswig a Danish province in 1863, Germans in both territories
appealed to the larger German states for support.
Bismarck persuaded Austria to join Prussia in declaring war against Denmark in 1864. Prussia
and Austria won the war and forced Denmark out of the disputed provinces. By mutual
agreement, Prussia took control of Schleswig, and Austria took over the administration of
Holstein. This arrangement strained the relationship between these rival powers.
The war accomplished two of Bismarck’s objectives. First, it made Europe aware of Prussia’s
military might and influence. Second, the tension resulting from the war settlement gave
Bismarck the excuse he wanted for going to war with Austria.
The war between Austria and Prussia (The seven Weeks War) began on June 16, 1866, and
ended in a Prussian victory seven weeks later. The treaty ending the war gave Holstein to
Prussia and Venetia to Italy. The treaty called for a “new organization of Germany without
the participation of Austria.
Prussia now took control of northern Germany. For the first time, the eastern and western
parts of the Prussian kingdom were joined. In 1867, the remaining states in the north joined
the North German Confederation, which Prussia dominated completely.
The southern German states, which were largely Catholic, remained outside the new German
confederation. Most of them feared Protestant Prussia’s military strength and its control of
Germany. However, Bismarck felt certain that he could win their support if they faced a threat
from outside Germany. He felt his best chance was to provoke a war with France.
During a crisis involving Spain, the French ambassador met with the Prussian king. Bismarck
deliberately gave German newspapers a misleading account of the two men’s conversations.
Bismarck made it sound as if the two men had insulted each other. Soon public opinion on
both countries demanded war. The fighting began on July 19, 1870. Because they were more
anti-French than anti-Prussian, the southern German states allied with Prussia. With the easy
defeat of the French, Bismarck gained support from all the German states for the unification
of Germany under Prussian rule.
On January, 18, 1871, at the conquered French palace of Versailles, King William I of Prussia
was crowned kaiser, or emperor, of the newly formed German empire. The new empire united
25 German states into one federal union. To Germany, the empire was known as the second
Reich, Bismarck became the new nation’s first prime minister.
The Southern German states were largely Catholic. These German Catholics, now a minority
within the new German empire, took steps to strengthen their position. They formed the
Center Party, which drew most of its support from the South German states. The Center
Party’s aims ran contrary to Bismarck’s intention to centralise government power. In his
efforts to reduce the influence of the Catholics, Bismarck took advantage of the doubts
created by the First Vatican Council’s 1870 declaration that the pope was infallible in matters
of faith and morals. A sizable group of Germans, known as the “Old Catholics, did not accept
papal infallibility. Bismarck played them off against the papal supporters. Members of the
Jesuit order were expelled from Germany, and the German Empire broke off diplomatic
relations with the Vatican. In 1873 and 1874, the German government issued degrees
requiring anyone holding a clerical office to be native German who had attended a German
school. All clerical appointments were subject to state approval. Catholic bishops who
opposed these decrees were arrested or expelled.
Bismarck called his policy by the grandiose name of Kulturkampf, or “struggle for
civilization,” and found support for it among German liberals. The anticlerical campaign
included the secularization of education, a limitation of ecclesiastical authority, and
dispossession of religious orders. Liberals agreed to an extension of police power to act
against recalcitrant clergy. The rule of law guaranteed by the new German constitution had
little meaning.
Even so, persecution only strengthened Catholic resistance. The Center Party increased its
representation in the Reichstag. After 1878, Bismarck halted the Kulturkampf and turned his
attention to countering the growth in power of the Social Democratic Party.
Prior to unification, Germany was not a great industrial nation. Primarily agricultural, the
German states lagged far behind Great Britain in the production of textiles, coal, iron and
steel. Knowing that Germany’s position as a major political and military power depended on a
strong economy, Bismarck encouraged efforts to expand the nation’s industry. By the mid
1800’s, advances in many areas began to transform Germany’s economy. The establishment
of the Zollverein (economic union) had already encouraged economic growth and spurred
efforts to improve transportation. After unification, investment capital from Great Britain,
France, and Belgium helped to modernize production and establish a mechanised factory
system.
The development of deep-pit coal mining in the province along the Rhine and the opening of
new coal mines in the Saar made available large reserves of cheap fuel for the new plants.
Cities grew rapidly. Many young men and women streamed in from the villages to work in
the new factories. As a result, at the end of the 1800’s, Germany finally became a major
industrial power. The economic changes sweeping Germany conferred on at least some of its
people the highest standard of living in Europe. The middle class and the business leaders
benefited enormously from the rapid industrialization of the country. But every improvement
in factory machinery resulted in lower wages and higher unemployment for many German
workers. They lived in crowded, filthy tenements and toiled long hours under dangerous
conditions. Poor wages, long workdays, and job uncertainty made German workers receptive
to a more hopeful vision for the future. They looked forward to a democratic social order in
which they no longer would be exploited. To help bring about this new order in Germany,
Ferdinand Lassale, a writer and labor leader, founded the Universal German Workingmen’s
Association in 1863. Although he called himself a socialist and a disciple of Karl Marx, did
not preach revolution. Whereas Marx called for the workers of the world to revolt against
capitalism, Lassalle advocated mass political action to change the system.
Lasalle was a national celebrity who knew Bismarck and lectured him on the worker’s plight.
However, he did not live long enough to finish the fight, for he was killed in a duel in 1864.
The party he founded grew slowly until it merged with the Social Democratic party in 1875
and became a major political force.
Bismarck believed that the socialist party was out to destroy the German Empire. He therefore
set out to crush its organisation. Bismarck’s efforts met with temporary success but his reform
efforts did not go far enough. Ultimately, the legislature sided with the Social Democratic
Party which marked the beginning of the end for Bismarck’s political career.
6. Why was Germany unified by Prussia and not Austria?
The question naturally lends itself to three main parts, the weakness of Austria, the strength of Prussia,
and the work of Bismarck. Candidates should not give too much background, but could point to the
overstretching of Austria after 1815, with its problems with Italy, its ethnic mix, its backward
economy and failure to join the Zollverein, and the constitutional and political problems, including
1848.
Prussia gained from the Congress of Vienna, and developed its economy steadily, with the benefits
obtained from industry and the Zollverein. Although 1848 was a problem for both countries,
economically and politically Prussia was stronger. This strength was recognised by Bismarck, whose
diplomacy and three wars were important in delivering German unification under Prussia. Better
candidates could point out that the decline of Austria and advance of Prussia were by no means
inevitable, or apparent, and analyse Bismarck’s aims and policies to consider if they were planned or
the result of opportunism.
[0 to 7 marks] for general/unsubstantiated assertions.
[8 to 10 marks] for narrative accounts of German unification.
[11 to 13 marks] for answers which explain why Prussia and why not Austria.
[14 to 16 marks] for focused analytical answers based on specific evidence.
[17+ marks] for detail, balance, depth and perhaps different interpretations.
This is a beautifully written answer which would score very high if the question would have
been on why Prussia united Germany but the significant weakness is the lack of an analyzis of
why Austria failed to uphold or strengthen a dominant role in the German condederation.
12-13/20
Why did the First World War break out in 1914?
IB1 History
HL
Annina Närhi
The World War I broke out in 1914 due to the tensions between European countries. Before
1914, USA was the leading power of the world, but Europe was closely behind. Japan had
also grown powerful after the Russo-Japanese war. Germany was economically and militarily
the leading power of Europe, with France and Britain close behind. Austria-Hunagry and
Russia were also noticeable powers.
The big powers of Europe were divided into two alliances: the Triple Entente of Russia,
Britain, and France, and the Triple alliance of Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Italy. Tensions
between these two alliances and other European countries were a cause of the First World
War.
A series of events lead to 1914 and the quarrel between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, which
made Austria-Hungary declare war upon Serbia. This encouraged other countries to begin
wars as well, like for example Germany, as she had been suspicious about other European
countries intentions and possible threats.
The Germans had suspicions that the Triple Entente was trying to encircle them. These
suspicions grew stronger from various events. France and Britain signed the Entente Cordiale,
which stated that France would notice Britain’s position in Egypt and that France could
possibly take over Morocco. The Germans said they would help Morocco to maintain their
independence. The Germans did not think much of the Entente Cordiale, because France and
Britain had a history of a bad relationship. Germany called for a conference to discuss
Morocco’s future and to her surprise Britain along other European countries supported French
rule over the Moroccan post and police force.
The next year, Russia signed an agreement with Britain. Russia would help with British
affairs in the East and Britain would help Russia in their industrialisation modernization plan.
This was no military alliance. It was a natural alliance for both countries to sign, since they
had a mutual ally, France. Germany saw this as Britain, France, and Russia trying to encircle
her.
A bit later, France was taking over the capital of Morocco. Germany wanted to threaten
France in hope for gaining some land from Africa herself. They brought a gunboat to a port in
Morocco. Britain was threatened by this, because Germany taking over ports in the world
could affect negatively to Britain’s trade possibilities. The foreign minister of Britain held a
speech to warn Germany off. This was settled so that Germany removed their gunboat from
the Moroccan port and now recognized the French position in Morocco, in return for strips of
land from French Congo.
These events lead Germany into believing that the Triple Entente was trying to encircle her,
and also the British foreign minister’s speech promoted an anti-British attitude into the
Germans.
The quarrel between Serbia and Austria-Hungary began so that the Serbs wanted land from
Austria-Hungary, since many Serbs lived there. Austria-Hungary could not give Serbia the
land they wanted, because then other ethnic minorities in the Austria-Hungarian empire would
demand for independence as well.
Austria-Hungary used a revolution in Turkey and conquered Bosnia. 3 million Serbs lived in
Bosnia, so now Serbia wanted Bosnia. Serbia asked Russia for help, and Russia called for a
conference. Russia was hoping to get British and French support, as she was not powerful
enough to help Serbia on her own and also not willing to risk a similar defeat as they had had
in the Russo-Japanese war. When the French heard that the Germans supported AustriaHungary, they said they did not want to interfere with what was happening at the Balkans.
The British did not want the Germans to get onto their back, so they only protested against
Austria-Hungary. Russia could not help Serbia and stepped out humiliated and started
building an army for a possible future situation like this.
In 1912, the Balkan League attacked the Turkish territories in Europe. This was the First
Balkan War. The Turkish territories were divided amongst the member countries of the
Balkan league. However, Bulgaria was not happy with her gains. She attacked Serbia, but the
other members of the league helped Serbia. A treaty was held at Bucharest and AustriaHungary was the only one of the powers to support Bulgaria. All the other powers supported
Serbia, which made her powerful.
These events lead to tensions between Serbia and Austria-Hungary. These two countries had a
very bad relationship now.
The German suspicion towards other European countries and the quarrel between Serbia and
Austria-Hungary are important background information for understanding why 1914 was the
year when the First World War broke out.
In August 1914, the Archduke of Austria-Hungary, Franz Ferdinand, was visiting Sarajevo.
During his visit, he and his wife were shot by a Serb. Austria-Hungary blamed the Serbian
government for this and the Serbs agreed with most of the points claimed. Austria-Hungary
declared war, and they had German support.
The Russians were now willing to make up for Serbia for the time they could not help them
with the Bosnia crisis. They started mobilizing their army, but the Germans demanded for this
to stop. The Russians ignored the Germans, Germany declared war upon Russia.
Germany also declared war upon France. They marched into Belgium, because conquering a
Belgian town Liège was crucial for their mobilization plan, the Schlieffen plan, to work. The
British had promised to support Belgian neutrality and demanded Germany to get out of
Liège. When their demand was ignored, they stepped into the war as well. Soon many other
countries were also involved in the war somehow.
Why the war broke out in 1914 was due to all of the tension that the Europeans had between
each other. In 1914, first the failure of settling the quarrel between Serbia and AustriaHungary broke out into a war. Russia got involved in the war for supporting Serbia. AustriaHungary’s allies got also involved in the war. Russia’s mobilization plan made the Germans
freak out due to their suspicions of the Triple Entente trying to encircle them. In 1914 all the
friction which was seen between the European countries broke out, began wars and
encouraged other countries to join the war as well, causing a world-wide war now known as
the First World War.
13. Why did the First World War break out in 1914?
Weaker candidates will probably relate the causes of the First World War; more able candidates
should analyse carefully the importance of causes, in order to judge if and how, each one was a
genuine cause of the war. The real distinction between moderate and good to excellent answers is
1914; why 1914 and not earlier, or later? Candidates should analyse why earlier disturbances and
crises did not lead to an outbreak of war, and why the assassination at Sarajevo did. How and why had
circumstances changed?
[0 to 7 marks] for inadequate knowledge.
[8 to 10 marks] for narratives of causes with some focus on 1914.
[11 to 13 marks] for adequate analysis and attention to 1914.
[14 to 16 marks] for focused analytical answers, with sound treatment of 1914.
[17+ marks] for in depth analysis and focus on 1914.
You’ve improved your answer but I still think you fail to focus on why 1914 and not for
example 1912. The rearmament race and the naval race between Britain and Germany is
crucial. The answer could be divided in different sections e.g. the tension between Germany
vs. Russia, Britain vs. Germany, Austria vs. Serbia. As the question is focusing on the time
(why 1914) you should also be more exact on when events took place e.g. the founding of
alliances, the construction of dreadnoughts and the fatal clauses in some of the
militaryalliances (Franco-Russian, austro-German).
12/20